Network analysis has many applications in various research areas and fields. A broad stream of network research has been developed in the social sciences as social network analysis.¹ Various concepts of networks refer to the connections, relationships that are the basic feature of each network. They focus on the shape of the social structure, the position of individuals in these structures and the resulting benefits. It is worth mentioning that there is no single, universal network model. Each is unique, and its formation depends on many factors, including the external world, i.e. the environment.² Networks can have different organizational forms from the least to the most formalized. A summary of selected organizational forms of networks is presented in Table 1.³

The above comparison allows systemizing and organizing various forms of network cooperation including the models presented in the article below. According to the author, the two presented networks are examples of different degrees of formalization. On the basis of the above Table, the Łukasiewicz Research Network presents the second degree of formalization, while POLTRIN’s network presents the first degree. Moreover, according to the author, the typology can be a starting point for new forms of cooperation between research institutes in Poland. The article is an attempt to answer the question whether the organizational model of institutes’ networking in Poland and Europe is an appropriate organizational form for these institutions influencing the increase of their competitiveness in the economy.

Poland still occupies a low position in studies showing the innovativeness of European Union (EU) countries. The level of the Summary Innovation Index for Poland is lower than the average for all EU countries. In the Innovation Union Scoreboard (IUS)⁴ published in 2019, Poland was ranked fourth from the end. In comparison with the results of previous years, from weak innovators we advanced to the group of moderate innovators.

Public research institutes are diverse and complex scientific entities. Each has a unique management and organizational culture. They operate in the areas of industry, transportation, energy, medicine, agriculture, public services, infrastructure and defense. Legal framework and organizational framework for research institutes in Poland is set by the Act of 30 April 2010 on research institutes.⁵ In the meaning of Article 1(1) they are state organizational units, legally, organizationally, economically and financially separated, which conduct research and development work aimed at implementation and practical application.⁶ The most important objectives to be achieved by research institutes include:

• conducting scientific research and development work oriented towards implementation.

The research institutes are to perform the following activities:

• conducting scientific research and development work aimed at implementation,
• conducting information activities: dissemination of the results of work, training, scientific, technical and economic information, ?
• teaching activities (specialist training courses), post-graduate and doctoral studies,⁷
• protection of intellectual property,
• standardization, certification and approval activities.

Research institutes are essential in creating and building a Knowledge-Based Economy (KBE) in Poland. They have the intellectual and research potential to support the national economy. It is the only sector of science that has been thoroughly restructured. Consolidation has been the main direction of restructuring . The table below shows the downward trend in the number of research institutes over the last thirty years.

Based on the above summary, it can be concluded that in the years of systemic transformation there has been a clear downward trend in the number of institutes (Figure 1). Their share in the total number of entities conducting research and development activity in Poland has been systematically falling. In 2009–2013, this decline is no longer so rapid, the number of institutes remains at a level of around 120, with minor isolated cases of disbandment, consolidation or privatization of selected entities. It can be assumed that the period of turbulent changes has been survived by the „strongest” units, cooperating with enterprises — units whose research activity is in demand on the market. According to the author, the institutes currently operating owe their survival of the turbulent times largely due to sound policies pursued by the management and changes introduced by individual governments who recognize the necessity of the existence of public research organizations and their important role in the development of an innovative, knowledge-based economy. A clear shift in the perception of the importance of research and development activities took place when Poland joined the European Union, when it became apparent that one of the Community’s top priorities is the creation of a competitive, modern economy. It is impossible to achieve these assumptions without high expenditures on research and development.⁸

The consolidation of research institutes in Poland has been one of the solutions, aimed both at avoiding the liquidation of weaker units and at increasing the effectiveness of R&D work conducted by these organizations. However, the question remains open as to what form the planned consolidation or cooperation of institutes should take?

Between 2016 and 2020, many changes could be observed in Poland regarding the functioning of these units. In December 2016, the law amending The law on research institutes was enacted. Its amendment regulates the procedures for the appointment and dismissal of directors of state research institutes and the composition of their scientific councils, including the method of appointing the chairman of the council and his deputies.⁹ Subsequently, The act on research institutes¹⁰ was amended, a new Constitution for Science¹¹ was adopted and the Łukasiewicz Research Network was established.¹² The purpose of the network is to carry out research projects including international ones, and to commercialize the results of work. Apart from the basic activity, affiliated institutes may also produce unique research apparatus and materials, conduct metrological, standardization and certification activity, develop prototypes of new technological solutions, conduct courses and staff training, and, if necessary, other activity related to their nature. An important aspect of the functioning of the institutes is their activity for the benefit of society, therefore, among the institutes’ tasks is also the popularization of science and knowledge of new technologies.¹³

A smaller POLTRIN network was also established to strengthen the potential of research institutes to carry out large research projects both for the development of the economy and the competitiveness of enterprises in the area of land transport.¹⁴ Currently, in Poland we have 110 research institutes, including 33 belonging to the Łukasiewicz Research Network and 3 institutes belonging to the POLTRIN network.

Networking of research institutes in selected European countries

Analyzing the idea of networking research institutes in Poland, it is necessary to briefly characterize this trend in the EU. In most EU countries, research institutes are public organizations and their functioning is inscribed in the binding structure of the particular national system of financing science. In Western European countries, institutes are associated within thematic groups which form a network of specialized institutions.

Networking of such institutions will be presented below on the example of research institutes functioning in two selected European countries — Germany and France.

In Germany, the equivalent of Polish research institutes are the institutes associated in the Fraunhofer Society. It is Europe’s largest nonprofit organization involved in applied research and its implementation in industry. The German association disseminates and performs applied research that is useful for private and public enterprises and benefits the whole society. The organization was founded in 1949 and brings together 72 German research institutes (Fraunhofer-Institute) representing more than eighty research sectors. More than 70% of its research income comes from contracts with industry and publicly funded projects.¹⁵ The network’s offerings are aimed at the following target groups:

• companies that want to restructure their market position through a new approach to their competitive environment or their internal processes and resources,
• companies seeking to optimize their information logistics through the implementation of in-company and inter-company information and communication systems,
• companies aiming at optimizing information logistics through the implementation of in-company and inter-company information and communication systems,
• companies involved in the development and distribution of innovative products that want to sustainably increase their technology and innovation capacity intermediary organizations such as: chambers of commerce and industry, trade associations,
• social partners and public sector institutions that want to contribute to the development of innovative ideas for standards and regulations or to participate in training and further education.

The research institutes are located throughout the country. The functioning of the individual units in the association is based on decentralization in management and autonomy of the units. The institutes cooperate closely with industry and universities. The organizational structure enables direct technology transfer. For the institutes within the association is important both the implementation of contract research for companies and the public sphere, as well as consultations, expertise, knowledge exchange and staff mobility. The association has considerable autonomy in management. The state administration does not interfere in the selection of research projects, and the evaluation of results is based on the overall contribution to the German economy. The government has some level of power in the
selection of the president, but less than institutes in other countries, since the board members come from both industry and science. In budgetary terms, the state only provides a core fund of 1/3 of the total R&D project budget. Another 2/3 must come from industry or other sources such as the European Union. This is a stringent criterion for evaluating the performance of R&D institutes. Half of the contract research comes from large companies and the other half from SMEs. The institute manages a database of alumni. Many graduates contact the association and form partnerships with the companies they currently work for. The institute collaborates with local industry and universities.

Furthermore, as the knowledge network becomes more globalized, the association has established branches in the USA, Japan and China, and cooperates with excellent foreign entities (companies, universities, research and technology organizations).¹⁶ The Fraunhofer Institute remains the leader among German research institutions in terms of the annual number of patent applications and industrial property rights. In 2019, 623 patent applications were filed.¹⁷

CARNOT is a national multidisciplinary network, founded in 2006, bringing together 29 French R&D institutes and laboratories and 9 affiliated research units.¹⁸ In 2019, the CARNOT network reported a 3.9% increase in R&D contracts compared to previous years. The units in the network represent about 15% of the national research and laboratory base and employ 26,000 scientists. The French Ministry of Science and Research directs and oversees the CARNOT network system. The National Research Agency (L’Agence Nationale de la Recherche ANR) is responsible for managing funding, structure and administration. It is a government entity created in 2007, functioning as a research funding agency with the aim of increasing research projects in all scientific fields. Among ANR’s main tasks, we can include:

• stimulating the development of basic and applied research and innovation,
• supporting partnership between public and private sectors,
• promoting effective technology transfer to the economic sector.

Implemented projects are selected through competitions based on the criteria of scientific quality and potential application in the business sector. Each research institute associated in the network has its own legal separation and competences in specific research areas. The CARNOT brand is awarded by the Minister for Higher Education and Research to those institutes that cooperate effectively with
representatives of the business sector and local communities.¹⁹ The brand is intended to promote partnerships in the research sector and to develop its cooperation with the small and medium-sized enterprises sector. A single entity joins the network by means of an open competition. After a positive evaluation, it undertakes to comply with the conditions and obligations contained in the rights and duties of the network. The Board of Directors consists of 15 representatives elected from among the CARNOT institutes. The network’s activities are financed by contributions paid by individual institutes and grants from the government administrations of the various ministries, local authorities and partners involved in promoting research and innovation.

Public funding is mostly used for specific purposes (e.g. conferences, information meetings, promotion, etc.).²⁰

The research and financial successes of both network organizations prove that creating networks of cooperating research units is one of the factors of increasing the innovativeness of the country. Such solutions allow for greater knowledge flow and technology transfer. Scientific institutions and entrepreneurs have faster access to knowledge and research results as well as to research infrastructure, shorter time of new technologies implementation, wider didactic offer, possibility to conduct multidisciplinary projects.

Research institutes in social and economic environment in Poland

The contemporary social and economic situation is characterized by complexity and changeability of the processes occurring in it. Research institutes must show particular market activity in order to meet the requirements of the market economy. Commitment to the development of creative and innovative state policy means investments in modern research infrastructure, modern laboratories, direct transfer of knowledge and

technology to the economy. Research institutes operating in a free market economy, should, to an increasing extent, be open for business and adapt their offer to specific market needs. The activity of these entities undoubtedly creates an opportunity to eliminate disproportions in applied research and development works between Poland and Western European
countries. Currently, many of them are an important source of scientific and technological knowledge. However, research institutes are very
heterogeneous. On one hand, the potential of some units, starting from the 1990s, has been gradually shrinking, on the other hand, many institutes have won international prizes and awards, successfully participate in research programs. It is worth noting here that before the state created conditions for cooperation and obtaining subsidies, many institutes had been independently seeking external contacts. The creation of thematic networks and bilateral agreements testify to the resilience of their activities and contradict the thesis that many units should be liquidated or privatized.²¹

Research institutes play an extremely important role in building modern, positive relations between science and business. They are closest to the economy due to the tasks they perform, i.e. conducting development and industrial research focused on implementation. Due to the fact that research institutes are a set of heterogeneous institutions operating in different areas of the economy, it is difficult to unequivocally assess their links and direct effectiveness of their impact on the economy. It is worth noting that despite low and decreasing subsidies from the state budget, institutes are one of the most important sources of obtaining funds from orders from entrepreneurs. However, the scope of this cooperation is still insufficient. The reason for poor cooperation between business and institutes is the lack of incentives for entrepreneurs and huge bureaucratic barriers, which make cooperation difficult.²² With this in mind, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education is trying to create certain facilitations and special programs for research institutions, which are supposed to intensify cooperation with the economy. A good example of these activities are projects announced by the National Centre for Research and Development, where the so-called scientific-industrial consortia are preferred. Another example is the Constitution for Business introduced in 2018. Constitution for Business, i.e. a package of laws aimed at reforming economic law to serve the development of entrepreneurship and
innovation.²³ Additionally, the establishment of scientific networks bringing together research institutes was initiated.

Legal and organizational framework of operation of Łukasiewicz and POLTRIN networks — comparative analysis

Established in our country, in 2019, the Łukasiewicz Research Network is the third largest research network in Europe. It currently gathers 33 Polish institutes²⁴ divided into specific research groups. The Network was created by incorporating a part (mostly subordinated to the Ministry of Entrepreneurship) of currently operating research institutes that have adequate potential to achieve the purpose of the Network’s activities. It is a structure which has considerable autonomy in the performance of tasks set out in the Act.²⁵ The Łukasiewicz Centre is responsible for planning and coordination of research work carried out in the institutes. Additional tasks of the institutes include: production of unique research equipment, metrological, standardization and certification activity, development of new prototypes and technological solutions.

Affiliated institutes may also conduct training, workshops and courses for entrepreneurs. The activity for the benefit of society is important. The institutes operating within the network maintain separate legal personality, act in their own name and on their own account. The activities of the network are evaluated by the minister responsible for higher education and science. Currently, the network operates in the area of four research groups: intelligent mobility, digital transformation, health and sustainable economy. The Łukasiewicz is the first in Poland and the third largest in Europe integrated network of research institutes with technical, substantive and organizational facilities to conduct scientific and implementation activities.

The primary objective of the Łukasiewicz Network is to conduct applied research and development work relevant to the Polish economy and national development strategy. The group of institutes was formed mainly from entities subordinate to the Ministry of Entrepreneurship and Technology. The goal is to provide attractive, complete and competitive business solutions in the areas of automation, chemistry, biomedicine, ICT, materials, and advanced manufacturing.

In 2018, the second network in Poland started its activity which is formed by institutes operating in the field of land transport not affiliated with the Łukasiewicz Research Network. Their main task is the implementation of national as well as international R&D projects and commercialization of research results.²⁶ The mission of the network is to strengthen the potential of research institutes, enabling the
implementation of large research projects for the development of transport, economy and competitiveness of enterprises. A characteristic feature of the network is the operation of this group of institutes within the competencies of the minister responsible for transport and focusing its activities on land transport. This area has been identified as one of the six most important in the SOR including among the thirteen strategic projects of the state.

Decisions in the Network are most often made by agreement. They are made by the directors of the institutes, who meet periodically throughout the year. In addition, persons from the individual institutes are designated for working cooperation. They carry out specific activities independently of their superiors’ meetings. An important advantage of the Network is that its management is practically costless, as the implemented activities are performed within the existing duties of its participants. POLTRIN continues the previous activities of the associated institutes, especially in the field of projects, and has also cooperated/participated in the Transport Day, organized annually in September by the Ministry of Infrastructure.²⁷

Institutes, within the network, operate on the basis of Regulations and Organizational Statutes approved by the supervising minister. They retain a separate legal personality and act in their own name and on their own account. The Network’s mission is broadly understood cooperation with the Polish economy in the field of road and rail transport. All institutes are headquartered in Warsaw, they do not require any restructuring or legal changes. The institutes associated in the network run complementary activities and have been cooperating for many years, both in terms of scientific and research projects, and e.g. in the area of certification. They are linked by many short-term and long-term agreements. Creating a network of scientific units allowed systematizing all the activities and facilitates taking joint initiatives on an ongoing basis. Of particular importance will be undertakings related to large transport projects across the country, such as the construction of new roads and freeways and the modernization of railroad lines. Cooperation between the institutes, in particular, includes:

• performing tasks important for planning and implementation of state policy, necessary to ensure the development of innovative, efficient, safe and low-emission land transport,
• identifying common problems concerning the sector and taking actions aimed at solving them with the use of expertise, scientific potential and research equipment at the disposal of the institutes,
• shaping strategic research programs as well as initiating and implementing a joint research and implementation program in the area of land transport,
• implementation of joint scientific and development work as well as implementation and dissemination of their results,
• cooperation between the laboratories of the institutes and exchange of research experience,²⁸
• representation of the network on the international arena in the area of scientific research and development.²⁹

The scope of the network’s activities is primarily aimed at:

• performing tasks important for the planning and implementation of state policy in the development of innovative, efficient, safe and low-carbon land transport,
• identifying and solving common problems in the transport and infrastructure sector and infrastructure,
• shaping strategic research programs,
• initiating and implementing a joint research and implementation program in the area of land transport.

Conclusions and recommendations

Creating research networks is a modern international trend. In Europe, excellent examples are the CARNOT network in France and the Fraunhofer Society in Germany. The effect of the activity of such structures results in an increase in the level of innovativeness of a given country. In Poland, the process of activity of two scientific networks associating research institutes has begun.

After analyzing the experience of networking of institutes in other European countries, it can be concluded that the model of functioning of scientific institutes associated in networks allows for:

• optimal use of research infrastructure,
• unification of organization within the institutes, which will increase their economic efficiency,
• strengthening the potential of research institutes,
• capacity to implement large R&D projects,
• increased success rate in European programs (Horizon 2020),
• faster transfer of knowledge and new technologies from science to the economy.

After one year of functioning of the Łukasiewicz and POLTRIN networks in Poland, the following benefits of their activities may be noticed: easier and faster access to the staff of specialists, more effective use of research potential and experience of the affiliated institutes, possibility of participation in interdisciplinary projects, innovative and adequate approach to the market demand for R&D services. When setting directions for future activities, research institutes should place even greater emphasis on active cooperation with enterprises, universities and institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences in order to jointly implement national and international research projects.

Research institutes can be treated as „hybrid” organizations. They are located at the interface between science and economy. They operate on the borderline of science with close relations to industry. They represent a kind of dichotomy between science and applied research while bridging the gap between universities and entrepreneurs. Institutes are forced to develop an appropriate model of functioning in order to fit into the expectations of the economy and science. They are research organizations that are much less subject to scientific analysis than their counterparts, such as universities. Research institutes should be perceived in two dimensions — they occupy the position of an intermediary between science and economy, operating under the pressure of global challenges.³⁰

It should be mentioned that the literature on the characteristics and evaluation of the functioning of research institutes in Poland is not very extensive. This article may be a starting point for further research related to the role and place of research institutes in the system of science in our country. The question remains open how to develop an optimal model of networking these institutions in Poland?

The presented activities of both networks indicate that the mission, objectives and tasks facing research institutes are the same. What needs to be solved is the model of their functioning (organizational form), supervision, management and financing within the structures of Polish science and economy.

Endnotes

¹ See: Wicher-Baluta, A., „Znaczenie kapitału społecznego opartego na analizie sieciowej w metodach zatrudniania pracowników.” (In Polish: „Importance of the social capital based on the network analysis in the methods of employing workers.”), in: Praca, społeczeństwo, gospodarka, J. Osiński (ed.), Oficyna Wydawnicza SGH, Warszawa 2011, pp. 222–223.

² See: Wicher-Baluta A., „Polityka oparta na klastrach jako czynnik stymulujący innowacyjność gospodarki Unii Europejskiej”, in: Kwartalnik Kolegium Ekonomiczno-Społecznego, Warszawa 2012, no. 4, pp. 253–268.

³ Knop, L., and Olko, S. „Ewolucja form organizacyjnych sieci współpracy” (In Polish: „Evolution of the organizational forms of cooperation networks.”), in: Organizacja i Zarządzanie, scientific quarterly, 2008/1, pp.101–116.

⁴ https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/innovation/scoreboards_en (accessed March 25, 2020)

⁵ The provisions of the Act shall not apply to research institutes of higher education and establishments of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

⁶ Act of 30 April 2010 on Research Institutes, (Journal of Laws of 2010, No. 96, item 618).

⁷ If it meets certain requirements laid down in the Act of 30 April 2010 on Research Institutes, (Journal of Laws of 2010. No.96 item 618).

⁸ Barcikowska R., Instytuty badawcze w polskiej polityce innowacyjnej w warunkach członkostwa w Unii Europejskiej Instytut Politologii Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie, (In Polish: Research institutes in the Polish innovation politics in the conditions of EU membership, PhD thesis, The Institute of Political Science, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw 2015).

⁹ According to the amendment, the minister supervising state research institutes will appoint the institute’s director from among candidates presented by a competition committee. The minister will also have the right not to appoint the director if, among others, none of the candidates guarantees the proper performance of the institute’s tasks. Furthermore, the amendment provides that the supervising minister will appoint (upon the director’s motion) and dismiss deputy directors of a state research institute. In the case of the scientific council of a state research institute, the amendment provides that it will consist of at least 50% of the institute’s employees as defined in the institute’s statutes and at least 50% of persons appointed by the supervising minister. At the same time, the amendment provides that the chairman of the scientific council of a state research institute will be elected only from among the members of the scientific council appointed by the supervising minister.

¹⁰ Act of 30 April 2010 on Research Institutes, (Journal of Laws of 2010, No. 96, item 618.).

¹¹ https://konstytucjadlanauki.gov.pl/ (accessed March 25, 2020).

¹² https://lukasiewicz.gov.pl/ (accessed March 25, 2020).

¹³ https://www.gov.pl/web/nauka/lukasiewicz (accessed July 27, 2020)

¹⁴ Polish Transport Research Institutes Network POLTRIN

¹⁵ https://www.fraunhofer.de/en.html (accessed April 2, 2020 r.)

¹⁶ Intarakumnerd P., Goto A. „Role of public research institutes in national innovation”, Research Policy 47(2018), pp. 1309–1320.

¹⁷ https://www.fraunhofer.de/en/media-center/publications/fraunhofer-annual-report.html (accessed August 3, 2020).

¹⁸ https://www.instituts-carnot.eu/en/mot-cl%C3%A9s/carnot-network (accessed April 15, 2020).

¹⁹ The Carnot label is awarded by the MNiB through a call for competitive proposals announced by the ANR there.
The selection procedure consists of an evaluation by a special Commission, after a positive evaluation, the institute in question receives the so-called CARNOT accreditation for five years.

²⁰ Barcikowska R, Sieciowanie instytutów badawczych narzędziem rozwoju polityki innowacyjności w wybranych krajach europejskich, Marketing Instytucji Naukowych i Badawczych, 2018. (In Polish: Networking of the research institutes as a development tool of the innovation politics in the selected European countries, Marketing of Scientific and Research Organizations, 2018).

²¹ Barcikowska R., Instytuty badawcze w polskiej polityce innowacyjnej w warunkach członkostwa w Unii Europejskiej Instytut Politologii Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie, (In Polish: Research Institutes in the Polish innovation politics in the conditions of EU memberships, PhD thesis, The Institute of Political Science, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw 2015)

²² See: Praca zbiorowa pod redakcją Bromski K., Współpraca nauki i biznesu, Doświadczenia i dobre praktyki wybranych projektów w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Innowacyjna Gospodarka na lata 2007–2013, Polska Agencja Przedsiębiorczości, Warsaw 2013 (In Polish: Collective work edited by K. Bromski, Cooperation of science and business: Experiences and good practices of the selected projects in the framework of the Operational Program „Innovative Economy for 2007–2013”, Polish Agency for Entrepreneurship Development).

²³ http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20180000646/T/D20180646L.pdf (accessed May 11, 2020).

²⁴ https://lukasiewicz.gov.pl/o-nas/

²⁵ https://www.senat.gov.pl/gfx/senat/pl/senatekspertyzy/5061/plik/1100o.pdf (accessed April 3, 2020).

²⁶ In July 2018, the Road and Bridge Research Institute, the Railway Institute and the Motor Transport Institute concluded an agreement on the establishment of the Polish Transport Research Institutes Network (POLTRIN).

²⁷ Rafalski L, Duże projekty transportowe (In Polish: Big Transportation Projects.), Przegląd Techniczny no.5/2020, p. 12.

²⁸ POLTRIN activity report for 2019, submitted to the Ministry of Infrastructure.

²⁹ https://www.gov.pl/web/infrastruktura/powolanie-polskiej-sieci-instytutow-badawczych-transportu-poltrin (accessed March 20, 2020).

³⁰ Gullbrandsen, M., Research institutes as hybrid organizations: Central challenges to their legitimacy, Policy Sciences 44(2011), pp. 215–230

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Rafalski, L. (2020). Duże projekty transportowe. Przegląd Techniczny 5(2020), 12. Patrz również: Przegląd Techniczny, 1(104), kwiecień 2019.
Wicher-Baluta, A. (2011). Znaczenie kapitału społecznego opartego na analizie sieciowej w metodach zatrudniania pracowników. W: J. Osińska (red.), Praca, społeczeństwo, gospodarka (222–223). Warszawa: Oficyna Wydawnicza SGH.
Wicher-Baluta, A. (2012). Polityka oparta na klastrach jako czynnik stymulujący innowacyjność gospodarki Unii Europejskiej. Kwartalnik Kolegium EkonomicznoSpołecznego, 4, 253–268.

Government documents
Ustawa z dnia 6 marca 2018 r. Prawo przedsiębiorców (Dz.U. 2018 poz. 646).
Ustawa z dnia 30 kwietnia 2010 r. O instytutach badawczych (Dz.U. z 2010 r. Nr 96 poz. 618).
Ustawa z dnia 20 lipca 2018 r. Prawo o szkolnictwie wyższym i nauce (Dz.U. 2018 poz.
1668).
Ustawa z dnia 21lutego 2019r.O Sieci Badawczej Łukasiewicz (Dz.U. 2019 poz. 534).

Internet sources
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/innovation/scoreboards_en (25.03.2020 r.).
https://konstytucjadlanauki.gov.pl/ (25.03.2020 r.).
Sieć badawcza Łukasiewicz
https://lukasiewicz.gov.pl/ (25.03.2020 r.).
Sieć badawcza POLTRIN
https://www.gov.pl/web/infrastruktura/powolanie-polskiej-sieci-instytutow-badawczychtransportupoltrin (20.03.2020 r.).
Niemiecki System Badań i Innowacji
http://www.polen.diplo.de/Vertretung/polen/pl/12-wissenschaft-forschung/03-wissenschaftinnovation/ 0-wissenschaft-innovation.html, (19.04.2020 r).
Stowarzyszenie Fraunhofer
https://www.fraunhofer.de/en.html (2.04.2020 r.).
Sieć badawcza Carnot
https://www.instituts-carnot.eu/en/mot-cl%C3%A9s/carnot-network (2.04.2020 r.).
Internal materials of the POLTRIN network.
Sprawozdanie z działalności sieci za rok 2019 r. przekazane do Ministerstwa Infrastruktury w styczniu 2020 r.

The situation on the academic education market in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe is quite similar (Wasielewski, 2017, pp. 63-65). After the period of mass education, which resulted in its universality and relatively low quality, universities are slowly departing from this model, paying more and more attention to the quality and specificity of academic education and to improving the effectiveness of the teaching process.

Relatively low scores achieved by universities from Poland and Slovakia in international rankings, current demographic evolution observed at schools (starting from the 2006/07 academic year in Poland and from 2009/2010 in Slovakia, a decline in the number of students has been recorded) and influenced by broader demographic changes in Central and Eastern Europe — a decrease in the population aged 19-24. These factors together with a rather low interest in the didactic offer of foreign students, and a change in young people’s attitudes towards learning are just some of the factors that induce university authorities and bodies responsible for higher education to take active steps to reform and search for innovative solutions, e.g. in the field of didactics. An example of such regulations in Poland is the so-called „Constitution for Science”, i.e. The Act of 20 July 2018, The Law on Higher Education and Science.

In Poland, the indicators concerning the method of distributing subsidies from the state budget for public and private universities are changing, according to which in a public university there may not be more than 13 students per academic teacher (SSR — student staff ratio)
(Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher Education from December 7, 2016).

As of October 31, 2019, there were 1,230.3 thousand students in higher education institutions in the 2018/19 academic year in Poland, i.e. 4.8% fewer than a year earlier. As many as 73.3% of all students were enrolled in public schools. A total of 93.2 thousand academic teachers were employed in higher education institutions, including 2.1 thousand foreigners.

The revenues of higher education institutions totalled PLN 24,591.9 million (of which PLN 22,057.7 million were generated by public higher education institutions) that is 5.3% more than in the previous year. Total costs reached PLN 23,885.8 million, 5.4% more than in the previous year. The average educational costs per student in Poland amounted to PLN 20,446.0, which is 7.8% more than in the previous year (Szkolnictwo wyższe, 2020)

In Slovakia, in the same time there were 136,874 students in higher education institutions i.e. 2.27% fewer than in the previous academic year. The vast majority of them (85.04%) studied in public higher education institutions. 95,830 of all students were full-time students in higher education institutions in Slovakia, i.e. 3.38% fewer than in the previous academic year. The vast majority of them (92.64%) studied in public higher education institutions.

The number of students has been decreasing since the academic year 2009/2010 in Slovakia. This trend cannot be connected only to demographic changes. Although the number of 19-year-olds has decreased over the last 10 years (by almost 30%), this decrease does not directly translate into the decrease in applicants to university. It is also not possible to claim that the number of graduates of Slovak universities has decreased in proportion to the decrease in the number of young people aged 21–25. The decline in student enrolment numbers at Slovak universities is likely influenced by the increasing number of young people that prefer to study abroad
(Vanèíková, 2019). At the same time, it should be noted that the number of foreign students has been increasing every year since the academic year 2003/2004.

A total of 10,036 full-time university teachers were employed in higher education institutions in 2018/2019 academic year (excluding 1,703 of parttime teachers), i.e. ratio of students to teaching staff was 13.64 (11.65 if part-time teachers are included) (CVTI, 2020).

In 2018, public higher education institutions in Slovakia reached revenues of 770,339.292 million , i.e. 2.22% more than in the previous year. Public higher education institution costs accounted for 758,007.472 , which was 2.58% more than in the previous year (MŠVVaŠ SR, 2018a;
MŠVVaŠ SR, 2019).

This article is a part of the considerations on the necessity and ways of improving the quality of education at universities in Central and Eastern Europe. It points academic tutoring as an effective tool to meet the expectations of modern youth, and at the same time a way to raise the professional competences of teaching staff and build the relational capital of a university. The aim of the paper is to pose a number of questions to determine the direction of changes that should be considered in order to incorporate academic tutoring into the teaching activities of the modern university.

Aim, scope and methodology of research

The aim of the article is to present the changes taking place in the expectations of contemporary students and to analyse the essence and assumptions of academic tutoring as one of the forms of personalized education, the goal of which is to empower the students and place their development at the centre of the university’s interest.

The research problem is to show tutoring as a method of building a relationship with a student, and also a method of improving the quality of teaching services offered at the higher education level. An analysis of academic tutoring (both developmental and scientific, as both types often interpenetrate in practice) was performed, taking into account the positions of both sides of the process, i.e. the tutor — university researcher and the tutee, i.e. a student, a participant of tutorials. It constitutes the basis for the formulation of a number of questions concerning the role and direction of changes in contemporary academic education. Questions remain open and it is at the level of a given university that an effort should be made to answer them. Yet, they may prove helpful in taking effective actions introducing changes in academic teaching.

The study, based on a critical review and analysis of the literature and the identification of examples of good practice in the field of academic tutoring in Poland and Slovakia, is of an exploratory and analytical nature.

Students’ expectations towards academic education and teaching staff

Socio-economic changes, globalization, internationalization, progressive demographic decline, evolution of the labour market and thus of employers’ expectations are just some of the factors that contribute to changes in the attitudes of young people, including their requirements regarding universities and academic education (SarnatCiastko, 2017, pp. 79–80). At the same time, they influence the demand for educational services, understood as a deliberate and orderly sequence of relations between academic teachers who offer their knowledge and skills, and students who acquire them (Pluta-Olearnik, 2009, pp. 12-13).

In the current reality (the COVID-19 pandemic), there is also the necessity of at least temporary isolation, and thus the importance of virtualisation of teaching and remote education (e-learning, hybrid education model, etc.) is growing. Information technologies and remote forms of interpersonal communication are rapidly developing — synchronous/asynchronous remote learning in given periods becomes a necessity.

The current forms of learning — through lectures, labs and practical classes often conducted in large groups, do not fully meet the expectations of contemporary students. Young people expect subjectivity, individual approach, and building partnerships with lecturers. It is desirable to use modern, activating tools and didactic techniques that enable real contact and effective discovery of the students’ talents, abilities and predispositions, and thus their development. Students expect taking into account the individual situation of a given person, which, with a limited number of hours of in-group classes under standard conditions, was rarely possible, let alone in the case of remote, on-line teaching.

When choosing a university where they intend to study, students expect high-quality education. In the perception of young people, it consists of, among others: plans, programs and methods of education used at the university, available research, teaching and administrative staff, education conditions and available infrastructure. What matters is the cooperation of universities with external entities, including business practice, particular care taken for the relations in the external and internal socio-economic environments, and corporate social responsibility (Adamska, 2018, p. 41).

The academic tradition and the place of the university in the rankings are also important.

In practice, human capital turns out to be the most important aspect, determining the intellectual capital of the university. It is people, their competences, commitment, creativity, personal motivation, intellect, willingness to develop, and the ability to cooperate with another human beings that primarily affect, with appropriate support from the university infrastructure, the level of teaching services provided (Adamska, 2018, p. 44; Kwaśny and Żur, 2018, p. 88). The effectiveness of any improvement and development activities is determined by the degree of identification and understanding of the expectations and needs of potential and current students. As Adamska (2018, pp. 48–50) claims, teaching staff and interpersonal relations are, in the opinion of students, the most important factors shaping the image of a university. The university’s infrastructure and the place of universities in the rankings are on the next positions. It turns out that students expect lecturers not only to provide knowledge and help in scientific issues, but also, to an increasing extent, to participate in various forms of cooperation, including support in professional/life issues.

The teaching staff should, therefore, improve the skills of professional support and counselling in order to meet, also in this respect, the expectations of students.

For most students, the university is the last stage on the educational path, which encourages reflection regarding their further life and professional career. It also presents the young individual with the need to make specific choices that should lead to success. In this situation, a contact with a person who could assist them and provide support cannot be
overestimated (Adamska, 2018, p. 50). These expectations can be met by a committed tutor who, acting as a facilitator, not only helps the students to cope with the „difficulty of studying”, but by activating them, asking the right questions at the right time, encourages reflection, and by formulating constructive feedback helps to make informed decisions. Students are definitely looking for not only mentors — specialists in a specific field, but tutors — people supporting the education process and assisting them in choosing a career path based on their predispositions and social competences. Such a teacher could also be helpful in acquainting a given student with a specific company, which, for example, is looking for an employee through the university. This could help create the image of the university as a socially responsible institution (Master, 2019, Adamska, 2018, p. 50). According to the available research results, among various forms of non-didactic activity of lecturers, students most appreciate cooperation, and conducting research projects in which students would like to participate. The social activity of lecturers is also important (Adamska, 2018, p. 52). Today’s students expect education based on dialogue and cooperation, in which mutual respect, partnership and trust are important.

These are perfect conditions for exploring inspiring scientific problems, acquiring new skills and developing competences; yet, they require strengthening the role and function of an academic teacher (Todorescua, Popescu-Mitroia, Greculescub, 2015, p. 191). The teaching staff of universities should be encouraged to develop innovative teaching methods that activate students, taking the role of not only a mentor but also a tutor.

Based on the research results (Centrum edukaèného manažmentu, 2018), Slovak students expect that their studies bring them excellent references for the labour market and a wide range of employment opportunities. Although students generally have lower expectations regarding international cooperation before starting their studies, the offer of exchange opportunities abroad obtained the best scores in the rating of students’ practical experience gained at university. Respondents indicated that the university provides them with the best basis in terms of their own personal development, further learning ability and future working career. While the future working career was described relatively positively, the respondents rated the development of business activities worse. According to students, more effort and emphasis should be placed on practical elements of their studies, on hard skills, and there should be more options for combining courses.

In general, students, regardless of the country, in the light of similar experiences and realities in Poland and Slovakia, as representatives of the same, Z generation have very similar expectations towards universities and academic teachers.

Academic tutoring — opportunities and challenges

Tutoring is a didactic method based on the „master-apprentice” relationship, known and successfully used since the times of ancient Greece (Czekierda, 2015, p. 20, Fingas, 2015, p. 38). Aristotle is considered the „father” of this method, who, while walking with his students, had the habit of having long discussions with them and teaching them in this way. Over time, with some modifications, tutoring began to be successfully used in secondary schools and universities in Great Britain and the USA, and introduced, with some caution, through experiments, into the education system in other countries, including Poland. To this day, however, it has not been properly appreciated or even permanently included in the curricula of universities in Central and Eastern Europe as a form of classes.

Tutoring is based on a kind of inversion of the education process — the purpose of tutoring is not to transfer knowledge in a traditional way, but to identify talents and strengthen the strengths of the student (tutee), and thus stimulate him to personal and scientific development (Cichorzewska, 2014, p. 223; Włodarczyk, 2018, pp. 75–76). Individual work of the tutor with the student in a 1:1 relationship is meant to encourage a young person to identify what is his or her true passion and explore it on his/her own (Master, 2019, pp. 36–37). In tutoring, external motivation moves towards the work based on internal motivation, which the student awakens and nurtures during the tutorials. Students usually have a tutorial per one or two weeks, taking place in their college. Tutorials normally last about an hour, during which the tutor gives the student a one to one feedback based on the prepared work on a particular topic. At the end of the tutorial, the tutor will set a new piece of work for a student to be ready for the next meeting. During the following week the student is expected to work independently to complete the task.

A tutorial relies on the exchange of ideas, so the student needs to be ready to present and defend his/her opinions, accept constructive criticism and practice active listening. Such a regular and rigorous academic discussion develops and facilitates learning in a way that is not possible through lectures alone. Tutorials are a great way to explore ideas and get new perspectives. They develop the ability to think for oneself — an essential skill for academic success and something that the best employers look for in graduates. Regular tutorials also allow for close progress monitoring, so tutors can quickly provide additional support if necessary (Ragonis and Hazzan, 2009, pp. 69–71).

University graduates who have had a chance to study with the use of tutoring gain skills that increase their chances of finding a job and launching a successful professional career (Poon, Hoxley and Fuchs, 2011).

The uniqueness of each student and their specific scientific interests make tutoring a process that is characterized by high dynamics and variability. No two tutorials are the same. It all depends on the student’s needs and capabilities, the tutor’s personality and work style, and the commitment of both parties, including the uniqueness of the relationship that is formed between the student and the tutor. All this means that when working with the tutoring method there is no room for boredom and routine, but there is a need to systematically update one’s knowledge, search for new information, follow the latest scientific reports that may prove inspiring for the student/ward. By discussing with the student/ward, the tutor also develops (Master, 2019, pp. 46–47).

Among the benefits of implementing tutoring into academic practice, there are benefits at the university, student and academic lecturer level (Włodarczyk, 2018, pp. 78–81).

• Benefits for the university:
  – improving the image of the university and increasing its competitiveness
  – strengthening the recognition of the university as a forge of soft skills of students
  – strengthening the subjectivity of students in the didactic process – continuous improvement of the quality of education
  – effective shaping of young people, who consciously take matters into their own hands, and by adopting entrepreneurial and proactive attitudes, have a chance to become future elites in a given environment – an opportunity, thanks to the use of modern forms of education, for a greater degree of internationalization of the university – development of culture and relationships
  – creating a group of graduates closely related to the university and identifying with its values, thus maintaining the relationship with the university even after graduation.
• Benefits for the student:
  – a chance for integrated development and the possibility of achieving above-average educational effects — studying, i.e. independent acquisition of knowledge under the supervision of a tutor, becomes an intellectual adventure that stimulates and develops, among others thanks to individual selection of educational content
  – development of self-management skills in time, improvement of work self-organization,
  – developing self-motivation for further development and lifelong learning
  – developing the ability to think analytically, clearly define thoughts and express one’s own opinions on a given topic, as well as substantive discussion and defence of one’s position on a given issue – learning becomes something natural, not a forced necessity – polishing the writing workshop (tutoring sessions, scientific articles) – developing the art of argumentation, presentation and defence of one’s position on a given issue.
• Benefits for the tutor:
  – tutoring creates the space and opportunity to exchange views on an intellectual and scientific plane with the student/ward, and to inspire each other
  – tutoring creates new opportunities for the didactic development of the tutor, provides modern, inspiring tools for working with the student – successful cooperation with the student/ward who discovers
  a scientific passion, achieves success in academic life, and then in professional life, may become a reason for obtaining professional satisfaction for the lecturer
  – an academic teacher has a chance to move from a role of a lecturermentor, simply implementing the curriculum to a tutor-guide,
  a specialist with high authority and a credit of trust, a partner in the process of acquiring knowledge and broadening the student’s horizons.

With its many benefits, academic tutoring has several limitations as well. First of all, in the academic environment, the knowledge about the nature and role of tutoring is generally limited. The implementation of this form of development into didactic practice requires certain administrative and organizational changes at the university level, including the
modification of educational curricula (the possibility of tutoring is partially available during diploma seminars, but it would definitely require an increase in the number of hours if this form of cooperation with the student was to be applied). It is necessary to ensure adequate financial resources for financing classes carried out in the form of tutorials (within the pool of expenses for teaching). The condition for success is to provide a sufficiently large group of properly prepared (the cost of refresher training), motivated and committed tutors who will confidently approach the implementation of this form of classes with the student (Godlewski, 2015, p. 92; Włodarczyk, 2018, p. 81).

Due to their nature, as a personalized form of education, tutorials can be addressed in the current reality to only a small, selected group of students, which can be perceived as excluding or even discriminating against the rest of the students. There is an impression of creating an exclusive group of „chosen ones”, who have special access to the lecturer thanks to regular individual meetings (tutorials) (Cichorzewska, 2014, p. 225).

Conducting classes in the form of tutorials requires, from the point of view of the lecturer, to devote a lot of time to teaching (contact hours are one thing, but the need to plan and prepare for individual meetings with each student cannot be ignored). This may contribute to limiting the scientific development, including research and preparation of new scientific publications. For students, such a situation would also be highly undesirable, because inhibiting the scientific development of a lecturer would limit their access to the latest scientific research and the latest achievements in a given field. Working with the tutoring method requires of the lecturers to manage themselves properly in terms of time, and a lot of discipline to maintain a balance in their lives and teaching duties. The so-called didactic academic career path creates an opportunity in this respect in Poland, but definitely tutorials as an inspiring and satisfying form of didactic classes should not be reserved only for the teaching staff.

When deciding to implement academic tutoring, a university should seek answers to a number of questions that will allow this process to be undertaken in a thoughtful manner. Some of them are:

• is there a chance to obtain additional funds for conducting classes using the scientific tutoring method, at least in the first phase, thanks to which this teaching method will be popularized?
• in a specific situation, will the strengths of academic tutoring lead to taking the full advantage of the opportunities offered by the
  implementation of this form of education?
• can the university allow the weaknesses of tutoring to prevent the use of potential opportunities?
• are the strengths of tutoring significant and easy enough to identify in order to overcome the threats and bring the university tangible profits?
• can the weaknesses of tutoring aggravate the threats resulting from its use and, as a result, bring more negative than positive effects?

In this way, the full picture of the factors that influence the effective implementation of tutoring into academic practice may be obtained. Their analysis and ordering allows to define possible scenarios for the implementation of academic tutoring (Dziemianowicz, Szmigiel-Rawska, Nowicka and Dąbrowska, 2012, pp. 104–120):

• a pessimistic scenario — weaknesses deepen the threats of the implementation of academic tutoring, the university does not generate benefits from the application of this innovative form of education,
• a realistic scenario — strengths override the threats, but some weaknesses prevent the use of all potential opportunities,
• an optimistic scenario — strengths fully allow to take advantage of the opportunities created by this method and the university benefits from the potential of academic tutoring, constituting a kind of benchmark for other entities.

The examples of good practice in the field of tutoring-based didactic projects presented below show that an optimistic scenario is possible.

Academic tutoring — examples of good practice and implementation of the method at Polish universities

There are more and more examples and possibilities of long-term implementation of academic tutoring in academic practice in Poland. The criterion for selecting the presented examples of tutoring in Poland was the time perspective of implementing tutoring into higher education in a conscious, structured way — from the first formalized projects in this area implemented since 2009, to projects currently in progress, e.g. Masters of Didactics.

• The „Modern Lecturer — tutor, coach” project implemented since 2009 at the Pedagogical University of Towarzystwo Wiedzy Powszechnej in Warsaw (Marzec, 2014, p. 92),
•  The „TUTOR — WOiG” project — tutoring at the Faculty of Oceanography and Geography of the University of Gdańsk, under which in the academic year 2012/13 and 2013/14 34 lecturers completed the 64-hour School of Academic Tutors course dedicated to the Faculty of Oceanography and Geography. Trained tutors work with students who are not necessarily the best, but seek knowledge, are active, and their interests extend beyond the curriculum of the specialty they are studying. This is done to promote self-education and foster independence in developing students’ scientific interests, as well as consciously use their potential. In a series of 8 meetings per semester, the tutor implements an individual academic course tailored to the student’s needs. Therefore, students can use modern scientific methods that are available to students of the best universities in the world.
• WISE — Faculty Individual Educational Path — a program implemented since 2013 at the University of Economics in Krakow, that can be undertaken during the last three semesters of the first-cycle studies and the last two semesters of the second-cycle studies. Each of the students qualified for the program resigns from a specific specialization and follows an individual study plan previously agreed with the tutor in accordance with the scientific interests of a given student. While working with the tutor on a 1:1 basis, students explore scientific topics selected together with the tutor, write essays, and engage in discussions (Kwaśny i Żur, 2018, pp. 89–90).
• IQ — Ideal Quality in Good Quantity project, implemented in 2014–2016 at the University of Gdańsk. The project was aimed at improving the quality of education and extracting the intellectual potential of students who expect even more ambitious challenges than those offered by the study program of the chosen field. During the project, 1,576 hours of individual tutorials were carried out by 29 trained academic tutors of various specialties, who took care of 222 students (Karpińska-Musiał, 2016, p. 95).
• An ongoing implementation, starting from 2016, of academic and development tutoring within the scope of elective courses at the Jan Długosz in Częstochowa.
• The „Masters of Didactics” project — implemented in the years 2019–2022 by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and cofinanced from the Knowledge Education Development Operational Program, the aim of which is to „raise the competences of academic staff in the use of modern, innovative teaching methods, especially tutoring, in education”. As part of the project, it is planned to develop a concept and implement new solutions in the field of tutoring aimed at supporting outstandingly talented students. Academic teachers from universities participating in the project take part in study visits to selected, renowned European universities, and then each of the trained teachers conducts, using the potential and experience of a partner from abroad, tutoring classes with selected students of their home university. The project involves the participation of approx. 600 academic teachers, conducting classes for approx. 1,800 exceptionally talented students from approx. 35 universities. Each tutor can take care of up to 10 students. Classes are to be conducted during the full cycle of education as part of the first-cycle studies or the first 7 semesters of the uniform graduate level studies (first 3–3.5 years); Funds under the project may be used to subsidize salaries for academic teachers, conducting classes within the normal course of studies with students using the tutoring method and for the preparation of teaching materials for these classes.
  In 2019, the ministry launched the „tutoring model”. The value of the funds allocated for co-financing classes in the form of tutoring for a period of up to 35 months is: PLN 42,910,000.00 and constitutes a significant support in the popularization of tutoring and the lifting of financial restrictions related to its use at Polish universities (Zaproszenie… 2020).

In the case of Masters of Didactics, the next recruitment for the project was announced on October 2, 2020 and assumes an allocation of
PLN 11,000,000 for this purpose by December 31, 2022. Recruitment of more universities interested in supporting the implementation of tutoring is on going.

The above-mentioned projects are examples of good practice in implementing academic tutoring in the realities of universities in Poland.
If properly adapted, they can constitute a specific benchmark for universities from other Central and Eastern European countries.

At Slovak higher education institutions (University of Economics in Bratislava, Technical University in Košice), there are some unique educational projects that are focused on the implementation of innovative teaching methods (project-based learning, problem-based learning, design thinking) that enable personalized teaching and connect students with business practice. Academic tutoring is implemented during conducting of final thesis at all studies levels. Final thesis seminars are included in the study plans as compulsory courses that are led by the advisor — tutor. On the other hand, we think that currently higher education institutions are not familiar with the concept of personalized teaching and/or academic tutoring and that they are not even included in the program and conceptual development documents in the field of education at the national level. In 2017, the document — Learning Slovakia (Učiace sa Slovensko) — was published, in which the emphasis was placed on personalized education at the level of primary and secondary schools (MŠVVaŠ SR, 2017).

Subsequently, based on the previous comprehensive strategy document the National Program of Education 2018–2027 was adopted in 2018, but the sections on personalized education were excluded (MŠVVaŠ SR, 2018b).

Let us hope that the examples of good practice in implementing academic tutoring in higher education in Poland will encourage the Slovak authorities to consider possible changes in this area and to assert that the advantages of tutoring definitely exceed its limitations.

Summary

New technologies, generational differences, capturing the current and anticipating future needs of the labour market pose many challenges for academic teachers in terms of methods and forms of education, rules for improving knowledge and their own didactic workshop. At the same time, students’ expectations are changing, evolving towards personalizing education, tightening the relationship with the lecturer, who should not only be a mentor and authority on scientific issues, but also a guide to help students choose their career path and find themselves in adult life after graduation. In this situation, academic tutoring seems to be a good solution, as it limits the negative effects of mass education, and supports not only the talented individuals that are particularly motivated and development-oriented.

Tutoring has both strengths and weaknesses. Appropriate recognition of students’ individual, improvement of skills and social competences that will allow them to meet the expectations of the labour market, increasing the attractiveness of studying, personal development, both of the student and the tutor, development of individual entrepreneurship of a tutee are just a few of the advantages of this form of academic education. Of course, introducing tutoring into academic practice entails the need for organizational changes at the university level. It also involves the necessity to spend certain funds; however, they should be treated as an investment, not only costs. It is worth emphasizing that academic education with the use of tutoring requires, with full flexibility and discretion in the topics undertaken, a certain care for the quality of this form of work with the student. Specific standards and control mechanisms should be developed in this field.

A lot needs to be done to make the optimistic scenario of the implementation of academic tutoring into the teaching practice of universities possible on a larger scale. The strengths of tutoring should be communicated clearly enough to make it possible to use the opportunities offered by the potential of this teaching method. Tutoring should become a complementary, and in some cases, alternative didactic method. The changes should be of an evolutionary nature. Examples of educational projects in this area show that it is possible.

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