Communication – the process of developing and transmitting ideas, information, viewpoints, facts, and sentiments from one location, person, or group to another – is essential to the lives and survival of both individuals and organizations. In today’s hyper-connected societies, efficient communication is more crucial than ever. By the beginning of the fourth quarter of 2023, global Internet usage reached 5.30 billion individuals, representing 65.7% of the world’s total population (Datareportal, 2023).

Phenomena such as globalization, digitalization, and convergence are continually reshaping the way we communicate today. The globalization of business operations, including marketing, incorporates new cultures and new societies, including those outside the circle of Western civilization, into marketing practices. Digitization has shifted much of the burden of communication towards the Internet and especially onto social media platforms. Convergence, meanwhile, is undoubtedly bringing numerous changes to how people experience and interact with media, with brands, and with one other (Giza, 2017, pp. 95–96).

Marketing communication is evolving in accordance with changes brought by its recipients. The global expansion of Internet connectivity has also resulted in an upsurge in social networking, free from the constraints of geographical boundaries or signal failure, allowing for faster and more cost-effective information exchange all over the world, thereby promoting globalization. Even multi-level marketing (MLM) companies, which highly prioritize interpersonal connections, now find it difficult to exist without a digital footprint. Additionally, the capabilities offered by social media bring people together to such a degree that they provide never-before-seen possibilities for recruiting new sellers online.

The online presence of multi-level marketing enterprises has attracted scholarly attention only within certain narrow scopes. Foundational work by Emek et al. (2011) explored the reward mechanisms in multi-level marketing within social networks, while Legara et al. (2008) analyzed the earning potential of multi-level marketing enterprises with the use of mobile communication and the Internet. Bradley and Oates (2021) addressed the post-pandemic revolution in MLM companies, providing recommendations to curb the pandemic-driven expansion of unlawful MLM activities and suggesting regulatory measures that need to be implemented by social media companies. Nadlifatin et al. (2022) explored the behavioral aspects of the millennial generation’s job pursuit in MLM companies given the new role of social media recruitment.

MLM companies’ websites remain understudied, with MLM company transformations seldom being linked to Internet use (Ciongradi, 2017; Chudleigh, 2019). Ciongradi (2017, p. 14) observed that, even at MLM’s inception, consumers could quickly obtain information over the Internet, while Chudleigh (2019, p. 7) noted that women often prefer engaging in MLM commerce online. A more comprehensive study by Cengiz (2020) concluded that intermediaries use MLM-owned websites for purposes of communication, product presentations, networking, member registration, and coordination with headquarters. However, case studies of MLM social media activities suffer from a lack of data, much like in the case of webpages, although scholars do recognize the existence of multi-level marketing companies on social media as a fact (Emek et al., 2011, p. 209; Mangiaratti, 2021, p. 237). Wrenn analyzed the relationship between multi-level marketing (MLM) and neoliberalism (2023, p. 1043), but focused mostly on the perspective of the intermediary, ignoring the social media profiles of corporations.
None of these studies have analyzed online mass communication from the perspective of the multi-level marketing enterprise, none have looked at the Polish market, and very few have described the nature of communication taking place in the online space.

Therefore, the objective of this article is to identify the areas of mass communication on the Internet utilized by Polish multi-level marketing companies, including the corporate web pages of those MLM enterprises and the social media profiles belonging to them. To achieve this, the study employs the following methods: literature analysis, descriptive analysis, and statistical analysis of data acquired from primary research conducted by the authors.

2. Literature review

2.1. Mass communication as crucial element of management strategy

The crucial role of marketing communication is widely acknowledged in the contemporary management literature. Over the years, researchers have developed a variety of perspectives and interpretations of marketing communications within organizations. In the Polish marketing literature, the term “communication” is frequently used as a synonym for “promotion” (Michalski, 2017, p. 341; Czarnecki, 2011, p. 266; Wiktor, 2000, p. 286; Altkorn & Kramer, 1998, p. 117; Pilarczyk, 1996, p. 219; Żurawik & Żurawik, 1996, p. 318). Very few authors distinguish between these two terms, separating them into different categories (Kotler & Keller, 2017, p. 556; Kotler, 2004, p. 66; Woźniak, 2004 p. 151). Those who make such a distinction do so to highlight differences in scope between the two concepts. “Promotion” (Latin promevere, promotio) (Sztucki, 1998, p. 256) implies supporting, favoring, promoting, and stimulating, and so it refers to an activity that conveys a message to the market, using the “marketing tube” to influence the market and drive sales (Pabian, 2020, p. 133; Wiktor, 2001, p. 3–14). Promotion, as a component of communication, consists of messages transmitted by a corporation to raise awareness of its specific products and services, develop interest in them, and induce purchases (Kotler, 2004, p. 66).

In a broader sense, the influence of promotion is enhanced by marketing research and the available market feedback. In this context, promotion can be identified with the communication process, where market dialog fosters interactions between the parties (Pabian 2020, p. 134). “Communication” itself is a more general concept; it transpires regardless of intention; therefore, it is the responsibility of an organization to ensure that its employees, facilities, and activities consistently project a particular set of perceptions concerning the company brand and its commitments to recipients (Kotler, 2004, p. 66).

Today, in an era when the term “integration” is used to describe a wide range of marketing and communication-related activities, where corporate marketing is emerging as the next significant development within the subject (Balmer & Gray, 2003), and where interaction is the preferred mode of communication and relationship marketing is the preferred paradigm (Gronroos, 2004), “marketing communications” now encompasses a broader remit, one that extends beyond product information (Fill & Jamieson, 2011, p. 16). Fill and Turnbull (2016, p. 3) follow this trend and define marketing communications rather broadly, as being concerned with the methods, processes, meanings, perceptions, and actions that audiences (consumers and organizations) undertake about the presentation, consideration, and actions associated with products, services, and brands.

Kotler and Keller (2017, p. 510) perceive marketing communications similarly, in terms of the various ways in which companies attempt to inform, persuade, and remind consumers – directly or indirectly – about the products and brands they offer. As communication channels become increasingly fragmented and congested, it becomes increasingly demanding to select effective methods of message transmission. One can differentiate between personal and non-personal channels of communication, each of which comprises a number of subchannels (Fig. 1). Kotler and Keller (2017) further explain that personal communication channels allow two or more people to communicate face-to-face or in a communicator-recipient relationship via telephone, traditional mail, or e-mail. The effectiveness of these channels relies on individualized presentation and feedback. Non-personal channels (mass communication) are addressed to more than one person; these include advertising, sales promotion, events and experiences, and public relations (Kotler & Keller, 2017, pp. 521–523).

2.2. Managing multi-level marketing enterprises

Multi-level marketing (MLM) is a common method of selling products directly to consumers through independent sales representatives. In its purest form, MLM is a specific type of a distribution system within the direct selling category.

The essence of direct sales involves offering products and services outside regular retail outlets, where building individual relationships with customers is of great importance (Polish Direct Sales Association, 2024). This sales approach allows for direct and flexible contact with a potential buyer (Czubała, 1996, p. 329), which reduces the role of intermediaries in the distribution channel (Jain et al. 2015, p. 904). Direct selling systems can operate as one of two types: single-level and multi-level (Fig. 2).

In single-level marketing, sellers are employed by the company they represent (in Poland, typically under a “contract of agency” or “contract of mandate” – a form of temporary employment) (Orzelska, 2016, p. 72). When concluding transactions with end clients, sellers receive no commission, as their compensation is determined by the terms of their employment contract (Sypniewska, 2013, p. 58). Sales managers, in turn, who are permanently employed by the enterprise and specifically designated for this purpose, are responsible for salesperson recruitment and training (Polish Direct Sales Association, 2024).

Multi-level marketing is characterized by the expansion of the seller’s activity, which in this case serves as an intermediary between the trading company and the end consumer. In this model, intermediaries are not employees of the enterprise but rather operate independently, typically being bound by an independent-contractor arrangement with the enterprise (Koehn 2001 , p. 153; Orzelska, 2016, p. 72). In addition to the function of a seller, intermediaries also recruit new intermediary links (Jain et al., 2015, p. 904). There are two primary sources of income for a multi-level marketing intermediary. The first is the profit margin on their own independent sales of products or services, the second is commissions for the sales achievements of their recruited network (Dewandre & Mahieu, 1996, p. 54). Their earnings determine promotion to higher bonus levels in the MLM structure (Sypniewska, 2013, p. 58).

Effective management of a multi-level marketing distribution system requires a highly complicated communication system. MLM intermediaries create their own network of individual independent units participating in the provision of goods or services for end use or consumption (Stern, El-Ansary, Coughlan, 2002). This network facilitates various flows, including property rights, payments, information, and promotion (Duraj, 2004), as well as after-sales services, complaints, and logistics information (Grabarski et al., 2006). The fundamental principle of MLM is building continuous interactions – relationships that add value over time. Each relationship is different from the previous ones and unique from the perspective of its participants. Effective MLM structures rely on dialogue and two-way communication (Vogelgesang, 2016, p. 134).

Communication with clients and possible intermediaries in MLM enterprises is usually associated with face-to-face contact with buyers, with sales occurring in three main ways: door-to-door, referral sales, and meetings (Waszczyk & Radacki, 2005, pp. 3–4). The sales process is typically also heavily dependent on impersonal conversation and starts with a presentation, proceeds through negotiation and transaction, and ends with an offer to become a seller (Waszczyk & Radacki, 2005, p. 5). Within the MLM structure, there is also a strong emphasis on reciprocal motivation, training, and support among the network of intermediaries, which fosters a shared culture and set of values that heightens the importance of interpersonal contact.

Note that multi-level marketing is a general term describing enterprises that rely on an external network of self-managing intermediaries to distribute their products. As previously mentioned, an MLM network’s intermediaries are not employees but operate independently based on instructions included in individual commercial contracts (Orzelska, 2016, p. 72) negotiated between the entrepreneur and each of the intermediaries separately. Furthermore, enterprises implementing MLM networks can operate across various industries and under diverse legal frameworks. The Polish judicial system, for instance, does not officially classify or regulate companies that incorporate MLM systems into their distribution systems.

The only organization classifying enterprises operating on the basis of multi-level marketing is Network magazine, a private publication focusing on the direct sales and network marketing industry. The magazine’s list classifies companies into four categories: direct selling and MLM companies operating in Poland, companies on a waiting list, anti-companies, and non-operating companies, with active companies being further classified by product type. Unfortunately, the publication does not indicate a timeframe for the list or the date of its last update.

Therefore, this study aims to identify and analyze currently operating MLM companies in Poland, focusing on growth in company registrations, their legal forms, and the main economic activities recognized within traditional regulatory frameworks.

2.3. Online mass communication tools crucial from MLM’s perspective

Modern communication channels are evolving globally, resulting in the emergence of a new hypermedia environment for marketing activities that often necessitates changes in marketing approaches (Kowalska, 2023, p. 82). This shift compels businesses to seek innovative methods of mass marketing communication.

The existing literature provides various classifications of online mass communication tools. IAB Polska (2021) categorizes online marketing communication tools into display, online video, programmatic, SEM, mobile, social media, games and e-sports, e-mail marketing, content marketing, online PR, and influencer marketing. Wiktor (2013, p. 264) previously proposed a classification based on the structure of communication – thus identifying company websites, displays, search websites, e-mail, social networking sites, and finally blogs, chats, and discussion groups – whereas Wiktor (2018, p. 94) later proposed a classification based on virtual communication architecture tools, which he grouped as follows:

• tools for communicating the identity of the message sender (enterprise homepages, company blogs, and others),
• tools for shaping relationships and the image of the company (social networking sites, blogs, chats and discussion groups, e-mail, mailings, social media, newsletters, etc.).
• virtual advertising (promotion) tools (display, search engine advertising, contextual advertising, native advertising, and others).

Managing highly relationship-dependent networks of intermediaries in the MLM distribution system can be quite time-consuming. Online mass communication not only the offers architectural tools to manage such a large group in a virtual environment, but also allows them to be equipped with tools to guide their own sellers’ networks and contact their clients with ease. Given these considerations, the two most crucial virtual communication tools for managing intermediate networks from a business perspective are tolls for communicating identity as the sender of a message and tools for shaping relationships and the image of the company.

2.3.1. The significance of websites

A company website one of the easiest and cheapest ways to build a professional image, attract customers’ attention and initiate a relationship with them (Jellinek, 2017, p. 22). Defined as a dynamically hosted network with a potentially global reach, a “website” (a term originally derived from the “World Wide Web”) encompasses the associated hardware and software necessary to ensure access to it, enabling businesses and consumers to provide hypermedia content, facilitate interactive access, and communicate through the medium (Unold, 2009, p. 151).

Company websites serve as the cornerstone of marketing communication on the Internet, through which most online promotional activities are carried out (Kowalska, 2023, p. 154). In today’s environment, having a website is becoming a standard component of corporate operations. It is frequently the first spot to verify, a company’s “virtual headquarters.” If the website is neglected, the likelihood of a potential relationship being terminated at the initial stage of interaction increases. A well-maintained website, on the other hand, can contribute to numerous marketing and management goals, such as (Mazurek, 2008, p. 41):

• shaping the image and brand of the organisation as modern and innovative,
• informing and disseminating information about the company, products, people, and ideas,
• acquiring new customers and establishing contacts,
• building relationships, entering into dialogue, and interacting,
• integrating users and preparing a platform for information exchange.

However, achieving these goals requires a website that is engaging, visually appealing, and regularly updated. One of the most important challenges for website creators is to design a site that is attractive in form and interesting enough to encourage Internet users to visit it again (Kowalska, 2023, p. 155). Enterprises that seek to conduct efficient mass communication should adhere to the 7Cs of an effective website, which are a set of fundamental aspects that determine the website’s appeal (Table 1).

One critical feature that is of great importance for the way a website is perceived by the customer, and very often for the image of the company itself, is web usability, i.e. the usefulness of the website. According to the ISO 9241 standard, usability is a measure of the efficiency, effectiveness and satisfaction with which a product can be used by specific users to achieve specific goals in a specific context of use. Jakob Nielsen, a leading expert on usability, regards it as a quality metric linked to operation. He identified five factors influencing the quality of website use (Ideoforce, 2016):

• learnability – the level of difficulty of the activities performed, which translates into how quickly the user can learn how to use the website,
• efficiency – the time needed to perform an activity and the related efficiency of the user using the website,
• memorability – the speed of acquiring skills in navigating the website and the ease of remembering the rules of its use,
• satisfaction – the level of satisfaction users feel when using the website, i.e. users’ overall attitude towards it,
• errors – the number of errors encountered while using the website, allowing us to evaluate its reliability.

In most cases, websites are characterised by a lack of intrusiveness: recipients must find their way to the website themselves and engage with its content. Therefore, for a company’s website to have the intended marketing effect, it must be attractive enough to encourage people to search for it. The basic elements used by companies to improve the quality and attractiveness of a website, and thus the effectiveness of building relationships with Internet users, include featuring interesting content (articles, advice, etc.), newsletters, news sections, Q&A sections; and an e-shop (Härter, 2009, p. 50).

In recent years, there has been limited research on the online presence of multi-level marketing companies. Existing studies tend to discuss MLM’s use of the web only in a general sense, focusing on the changing landscape facing MLM enterprises. For example, Ciongradi (2017, p. 14) notes that with the rise of the Internet, people have easy access to information, which has supported the longevity of some of the earliest MLM companies. Chudleigh (2019, p. 7) points out that women often feel more comfortable doing business with men online than in person, which has likely contributed to the significant involvement of women in MLM. Women may perceive online business interactions as more socially acceptable than discussing MLM opportunities face-to-face, which contributes to the significant involvement of women in MLMs. Women also tend to view conducting business online as more socially acceptable than discussing it in person.

A notable study was conducted in Turkey by Akdemir Cengiz in 2020, focusing on BioBellinda, a multi-level marketing organisation. The study examined how BioBellinda employees use the Internet in their work, revealing that websites are used for several purposes, including communication among intermediaries, product presentation, network-building, member registration, and communication with headquarters (Cengiz, 2020, pp. 61–62, 64).

The literature lacks sufficient information regarding the precise number of currently active websites for multi-level companies, making it impossible to determine the most common aspects of websites dedicated to these organisations, identify those that are most prevalent, and assess their suitability for Polish-speaking audiences. From a mass communication management perspective, understanding how long users stay on an MLM website is essential, as it serves as a tool for both intermediaries and buyers. It is also important to determine which devices are predominantly used to access websites, such as computers or smartphones, to optimize the user experience across platforms.

2.3.2. The significance of websites

The rise of the Internet and social media has reshaped the perception and usage of mass media, leading to a division into old (traditional) and new media. The first group currently includes platforms like radio, television, and the press, while new media includes digital technologies (Kaznowski, 2010). At its core, social media can be defined in various ways, but Ahlqvist et al. (2008) propose an accurate structure that, in their opinion, captures the three most important pillars: Web 2.0, content, and virtual (network) communities (Fig. 3). They refer to this combination as the social media triangle, where each of these three elements is equally crucial to the communication process.

Importantly, social media cannot be equated with mass media (Kaznowski, 2010). Unlike mass media, which is restricted to broad-scale communication, social media offers flexibility in communication formats, allowing for one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many interactions (Cohen, 2020). Although social media can still be viewed as a mass communication medium, it simply offers greater functionality that allows for social interactions.

For multi-level marketing (MLM) companies, platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube offer substantial opportunities for managing mass communication, enabling interaction not only between the company and users but also among users themselves.

Facebook, part of Meta Platforms, Inc., is the largest social networking site with over 2.91 billion active users (Statista, 2022) and is the most popular social media site in Poland. According to Statcounter research, 77% of social media traffic takes place on the Facebook platform (Statcounter, 2023). The primary tool used by enterprises on Facebook is the “fan page,” a hub bringing together users associated with the company and its fans. It allows companies to provide basic information about themselves (e.g., location, contact information, website address), as well as to publish posts (photos, videos, and links to the online store). Facebook also facilitates direct engagement between customers and company representatives through private messages and comments, fostering community-building and bridging the gap between the company and its audience.

Instagram is a portal also owned by Meta Platforms, Inc., has a community of over 2 billion users (Ahlgreni 2022), with more than 70% of its user base under 35 years old, making it essential for brands targeting younger audiences. The platform focuses on sharing photos and short videos, allowing users to comment, tag, and share posts. Recently, Instagram introduced features like in-app stores and Instastories, which have made it more appealing to businesses looking to promote products and engage users in creative ways.

YouTube is another powerful platform, used by over 2 billion users (Dean, 2021). According to Semrush research from 2020, Polish users spend an average of nearly 32 minutes on YouTube per visit (Skibińska, 2022). Its primary function is video sharing, with users creating channels and posting unlimited content. YouTube allows users to rate videos and post comments under them, providing a valuable platform for storytelling and brand building.

Despite the widespread use of social media by MLM companies, research on this topic remains limited. Most studies acknowledge the presence of MLMs on social media but do not classify or examine this space in depth. Some authors mention it as an established fact in their literature reviews (Emek et al., 2011, p. 209) or case studies (Mangiaratti, 2021, p. 237), while others, like Wrenn, explore MLM as an interactively reinforcing institution of neoliberalism, the ideological operant of this current phase of capitalism (Wrenn, 2023, p. 1043). In this model, intermediaries are expected to use their personal social media to promote products and recruit distributors, with social media becoming a platform for sharing curated posts about the benefits of MLM – such as financial independence and lifestyle improvements – effectively blurring the line between personal and professional life.

The current literature suggests a need for more focused research on MLM intermediaries’ behaviour on social media, as well as corporate profiles, which have received little attention to date. Key areas for further study include identifying the most popular MLM profiles, assessing their customization for Polish audiences, and determining the subscriber base. Such research would provide insights into the platforms most commonly used by MLM enterprises and the engagement strategies that resonate with their audiences.

3. Research methodology

This study involved a quantitative analysis of the content on websites and social media profiles of companies operating in the multi-level marketing (MLM) model.

Given the lack of existing data on the study population, the research was conducted in two stages. Stage one involved updating the list of MLM entities currently operating in Poland, including details such as company names, legal form, Polish Classification of Business Activities (PKD), registration date, and product range. An initial list of 139 companies was downloaded on 1 October 2023, from the Network magazine’s online resources. Each entity was verified using the REGON (National Register of Businesses) database and the National Court Register (KRS) to remove non-existent or bankrupt companies. This filtering process resulted in a final sample of 113 enterprises.

The second stage of the study, the main stage, focused on the online activity of multiple-level marketing enterprises, including websites and social media. In this stage, Internet tools such as Similarweb, Ins.Track.app, and BuzzSumo were used to gather statistics, analytics, rankings, popularity, and other website data. The raw data was then collected and processed using Excel.

The research was conducted over the period from October 2023 to November 2023, using the Internet and social media websites.

4. Results

4.1. Characteristics of the study group

The number of registrations of new multi-level marking enterprises that still exist online today peaked visibly in 2001 and then progressively decreased to zero during the Global Financial Crisis. Since then, the rate of new registrations has shown fluctuations, gradually stabilizing by 2023 (Fig. 4).

When classifying these companies into five-year age ranges, a extraordinary homogeneity emerges. Companies operating for five years or less comprise 19.4% of the group. The next older group, in operation for 6–10 years, accounts for 20.35%. Those with 11–15 years of experience represent 18.58%, while companies in operation for 16–20 years make up 23.01%. The group of companies operating the longest, over 21 years, constitutes 18.58% of the sample.

There are several forms of business activity in Poland, differing in terms of both formal and financial matters – such as place of registration, capital requirements, and methods of representation. Among multi-level marketing companies, the most common legal form is the limited liability company (spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością), making up 74.34% of the sample. Other legal forms have a smaller shares: self-employment (osoba prowadząca działalność gospodarczą) at 10.62%, joint-stock companies (spółka akcyjna) at 9.73%, limited partnerships (spółka komandytowa) at 4.42% and civil partnerships (spółka cywilna) at 0.88%.

The primary economic activities of these enterprises, as defined by the Polish Classification of Activities (PKD), are organized by the central statistical office Statistics Poland (GUS). Each company has at least one active PKD code that reflects its main activity. To visualize the key economic activities, a word cloud was created from keywords using the Wordle application (Fig. 5). The most common terms included “activities,” “products,” “specialised,” “stores,” and “retail.”

Ownership structure is another critical classification. In the private sector, ownership may be national, foreign, and mixed. The majority of companies in our sample are domestically owned (63.46%) and one-third are foreign owned (36.54%), with only 8.65% being mixed.

MLM companies in Poland offer a diverse range of products. One of the most frequently used product categories is “wellness items,” but due to the vague and expansive nature of this term, it was rejected in favour of more precise product categories taken from the literature (Fig. 6). Dietary supplements (41.59%) and cosmetics (38.94%) are by far the most numerous groups of products sold. Less popular but still relevant are cleaning supplies (16.81%) and food (14.16%).

4.2. Website analysis

In this next part of the study, the Similarweb search engine was used to analyse the traffic on the websites of MLM companies operating in Poland for three months (from September to October 2023) (Table 2). The total number of businesses having websites was 103.

Average monthly visits across all websites exceeded 190,000. The most popular sites were those owned by foreigners and those that had been in operation for more than 16 years. Device preference among users showed minimal difference, although foreign-owned sites were more frequently accessed via smartphones. Additionally, younger companies attracted mobile users more often than older enterprises. The average visit duration on these websites was almost 4 minutes, with foreign-owned and more experienced companies seeing users spend more time.

The bounce rate – the percentage of users who leave a site after viewing only one page – is a metric used to assess a website’s effectiveness in terms of user engagement. According to HubSpot (2023), a bounce rate of 26% to 70% is typical, with rates of 40% or less considered desirable in general and rates of 55% or higher considered excessive, indicating a need for improvement (TheFullStory, 2023). The average bounce rate for the MLM companies in our sample was 48%. This metric was notably higher in the case of domestically owned businesses and those with a short history of operation. Companies with foreign funding and more work experience, on the other hand, performed considerably better, demonstrating better user retention.

In the next step, all of the available multi-level marketing companies’ websites were examined in terms of key elements, such as website language, company information, contact details or form, product offerings, online shop, collaboration/work offers, intermediary community section, request form for product presentation, events calendar, catalogues, terms and conditions, and privacy policy (Table 3).

The majority of the websites analysed were Polish-owned. The most common elements were the product offer, company details, and contact information. Collaboration opportunities and privacy policies were also frequent. Interestingly, requests for product presentations, once a standard feature, are becoming increasingly rare. Newer websites often lack essential elements such as online shops, blogs, and even terms and conditions, potentially impacting user engagement and trust.

4.3. Social media analysis

Social media platforms were found to be not as widely used among Polish MLM companies as websites (Table 4). Facebook is the most popular social media page, used by 87.61% of the enterprises studied, with YouTube as the second most popular (68.14%) followed by Instagram with 60.18%.

Not all of the companies that do have social media accounts provide Polish-language profiles. YouTube profiles are the most likely not to be in Polish, with 22.08% of profiles being in a foreign language, followed by Instagram at 16.18% and Facebook at 10.10%. Analysing the average number of subscribers shows that Facebook is the most popular social media site among Polish MLM enterprises, with 232,342.14 followers per profile

Looking at the MLM social media activity through the lens of company age (Table 5) reveals that the most significant follower numbers on Facebook are enjoyed more by mature companies. However, enterprises younger than 21 years old also rate this particular social media platform as a popular one.

Instagram users are almost equally divided; however, it’s important to notice that older companies struggle to provide profiles adapted to Polish speakers. Facebook profiles are also similarly divided, but here, younger and older companies struggle with Polish accommodation equally. On the other hand, YouTube is the domain of younger generations, hence the content posted can usually be foreign-language.

5. Discussion and conclusion

The purpose of this study was to identify areas of mass communication on the Internet utilized by multi-level marketing (MLM) companies in Poland. The findings suggests that MLM companies in Poland are indeed active in developing their brands on the Internet using both social media sites and websites.

Achieving this goal required an in-depth analysis of a carefully selected research sample, along with a comprehensive characterization of the currently operating market of MLM in Poland based on the materials of Network magazine. As such, this study represents the first market characterization of this type in the MLM literature.

The number of companies found to be active in the analysed period totalled 113, representing various stages of development, but most often they are limited liability companies. Their primary economic activities, as indicated by their PKD codes, were found to be focused around the terms “activities,” “products,” “specialized,” “stores,” and “retail.” Most often, they sell dietary supplements, cosmetics, cleaning products and food.

Foreign-owned and well-established companies (over 16 years in operation) had the most popular websites. Device preferences were minimal, though foreign-owned sites showed higher smartphone usage. Younger companies also tend to attract mobile users more frequently. The average visit duration across MLM websites was about 4 minutes, with users spending more time on sites of international and experienced companies. The average bounce rate was 48%, with higher rates for domestically owned and younger companies, while foreign-funded and established enterprises demonstrated better retention. The majority of websites were in Polish, with product offerings, company information, and contact details as the most common content elements. Partnership and product offers were also frequently displayed, along with the mandated privacy policies and terms and conditions.

Websites are more popular than social media platforms. Facebook is the most popular social media platform for multi-level marketing. Not all social media companies provide Polish-language profiles, especially on those social media sites that typically provide longer types of content, such as YouTube. By average number of subscribers, Facebook is the most popular social networking site, but this number comes from the older generation of enterprises that have operating for over 21 years.

These findings are generally consistent with the limited previously existing research, particularly regarding the use of websites for intermediary communication (Cengiz, 2020). MLM enterprises operating in Poland and their intermediaries have an established online presence, creating a network of connections between companies, intermediaries, and customers. Social media platforms foster communities of fans and supporters around these businesses.

This study has at least several potential limitations. The absence of prior research on MLM’s online presence introduces challenges in identifying reliable trends or relationships within the data. The initial list of MLM enterprises was sourced from a privately-owned magazine, which may affect the reliability of the sample. Furthermore, the lack of comprehensive data and comparative studies on MLM’s online presence limits the ability to cross-check results with other research. The study’s short duration did not allow for a broader analysis over time, and the reliance on third-party analysis tools may not fully capture the diversity and complexity of the MLM population.

Nevertheless, this study lays a basic foundation for future research on the mass communication strategies of MLM enterprises online. Future studies would benefit from a more robust classification of MLM enterprises, supported by a wider range of online tools such as AI and specialized search engines. Methodologically, incorporating qualitative research approaches could deepen understanding, particularly in social media communication, where netnography methods would provide valuable insights.

Despite its limitations, this study suggests several implications. The findings could support the development of the first official classification for MLM enterprises and encourage governments to create regulatory frameworks that better identify MLM companies within PKD codes. Ultimately, this study represents a first step in understanding how MLM companies communicate via online mass media, laying a foundation for further qualitative and quantitative research. It opens up opportunities for exploring social media engagement, studying content through qualitative methods, and interacting with online users.

References

Ahlqvist, T., Bäck, A., Halonen, M., & Heinonen, S. (2008). Social media roadmaps: exploring the futures triggered by social media. VTT Tiedotteita-Valtion Teknillinen Tutkimuskeskus Research Notes 2454.

Altkorn, J., & Kramer, T. (1998). Leksykon marketingu [Lexicon of Marketing]. PWE, Warszawa.

Bradley, C., & Oates, H. E. (2021). The multi-level marketing pandemic. Tennessee Law Review, 89, 321.

Cengiz, H. A. (2020). The perception of multi-level marketing by its members in Turkey. Academic Review of Consumer Behavior and Research, 1(1), 50–71.

Chudleigh, H. E. (2019). The new face of business: Comparing male and female gender stereotypes in multi-level marketing Facebook posts in India (Master’s thesis, Brigham Young University).

Ciongradi, I. M. (2017). Multilevel marketing for everybody is not forever. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov. Series V: Economic Sciences, 10(2), 11–16.

Cohen, H. (2020). Social media definition: The guide you need to get results. Retrieved from https://heidicohen.com/social-media-definition/

Czarnecki, A. (2011). Narzędzia komunikacji marketingowej [Marketing Communication Tools]. In L. Grabarski (Ed.), Marketing. Koncepcja skutecznych działań [Marketing: The Concept of Effective Actions] (pp. 195–231). PWE.

Czubała, A. (2000). Dystrybucja [Distribution]. In J. Altkorn (Ed.), Podstawy marketingu [Basics of Marketing] (pp. 285–345). Instytut Marketingu.

Czubała, A. (2001). Distribution of products. Polish Economic Publishing House.

Balmer, J. M., & Gray, E. R. (2003). Corporate brands: What are they? What of them? European Journal of Marketing, 37(7/8), 972–997.

Datareportal. (2023). Digital around the world. Retrieved from https://datareportal.com/global-digital-overview

Dean, B. (2021). How many people use YouTube in 2022? Retrieved from https://backlinko.com/youtube-users

Dewandre, P., & Mahieu, C. (1996). Przyszłość marketingu wielopoziomowego w Europie. Racje sukcesu MWP [The Future of Multi-level Marketing in Europe. Reasons for MLM Success]. Horizon International, Szczecin.

Duraj, J. (2004). Podstawy ekonomiki przedsiębiorstwa [Basics of Enterprise Economics]. Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa.

Emek, Y., Karidi, R., Tennenholtz, M., & Zohar, A. (2011, June). Mechanisms for multi-level marketing. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Electronic commerce (pp. 209–218).

Fill, C., & Jamieson, B. (2023). Marketing Communications. Edinburgh Business School Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.

Fill, C., & Turnbull, S. (2016). Marketing communications: Discovery, creation and conversations. Pearson.

Giza, A. (2017). Uczeń czarnoksiężnika, czyli społeczna historia marketingu [The Sorcerer’s Apprentice: A Social History of Marketing]. Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.

Grabarski, L., Rutkowski, I., & Wrzosek, W. (2006). Marketing. Punkt zwrotny nowoczesnej firmy [Marketing: A Turning Point for the Modern Company]. Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa.

Gronroos, C. (2004). The relationship marketing process: Communication, interaction, dialogue, value. Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 19(2), 99–113.

Härter, G. (2009). Jak zdobyć klientów w internecie [How to Gain Clients Online]. Wydawnictwo BC.

HubSpot. (2023). What is bounce rate and how to fix it. Retrieved from: https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/what-is-bounce-rate-fix

IAB Polska. (2020/2021). Raport strategiczny. Internet 2020/2021 [Strategic Report: Internet 2020/2021]. Retrieved from https://www.iab.org.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Raport-Strategiczny-2021.pdf

Ideoforce. (2016). Web usability – czym jest użyteczność stron internetowych [Web Usability – What is it]. Retrieved from https://www.ideoforce.pl/akademia/web-usability-czyli-na-czym-polega-uzytecznosc-stron-internetowych,78.html

Jain, S., Singla, B., & Shashi, S. (2015). Motivational factors in multilevel marketing business: A confirmatory approach. Management Science Letters, 5(10), 903–914.

Jellinek, R. (2017). Trzy filary biznesu w internecie. Kompleksowy przewodnik po narzędziach e-marketingowych [The Three Pillars of Online Business: A Comprehensive Guide to E-Marketing Tools]. Agencja interaktywna.

Kaznowski, D. (2010). Definicja social media [Definition of Social Media]. Retrieved from https://networkeddigital.wordpress.com/2010/04/17/definicja-social-media/

Koehn, D. (2001). Ethical issues connected with multi-level marketing schemes. Journal of Business Ethics, 29(12), 153–160.

Kotler, Ph. (2004). Marketing od A do Z [Marketing from A to Z]. PWE.

Kotler, Ph., & Keller, K. L. (2017). Marketing. Dom Wydawniczy Rebis, Poznań.

Kowalska, M. (2023). Marketing relacji w dobie technologii cyfrowych [Relationship Marketing in the Digital Age]. PWE.

Legara, E. F., Monterola, C., Juanico, D. E., Litong-Palima, M., & Saloma, C. (2008). Earning potential in multilevel marketing enterprises. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 387(19–20), 4889–4895.

Mangiaratti, C. H. (2021). Big dreams and pyramid schemes: The FTC’s path to improving multi–level marketing consumer protection in light of AMG Capital Management and the 2016 Herbalife settlement. Journal of Law and Policy, 30, 228.

Mazurek, G. (2008). Promocja w Internecie – narzędzia, zarządzanie, praktyka [Internet Promotion – Tools, Management, Practice]. Ośrodek Doradztwa i Doskonalenia Kadr.

Michalski, E. (2017). Marketing: podręcznik akademicki [Marketing: An Academic Textbook]. PWN.

Nadlifatin, R., Persada, S. F., Clarinda, M., Handiwibowo, G. A., Laksitowati, R. R., Prasetyo, Y. T., & Redi, A. A. N. P. (2022). Social media-based online entrepreneurship approach on millennials: A measurement of job pursuit intention on multi-level marketing. Procedia Computer Science, 197, 110–117.

Orzelska, D. (2016). Niestandardowe formy zatrudnienia: wyzwania dla pracowników i pracodawców na przykładzie sektora sprzedaży bezpośredniej [Non-standard Forms of Employment: Challenges for Employees and Employers in the Direct Sales Sector]. Rozwój Regionalny i Lokalny, 70, 70–79.

Pabian, A. (2020). Komunikacja rynkowa przedsiębiorstwa [Market Communication of the Enterprise]. In A. Czubała, R. Niestrój, & A. Pabian (Eds.), Marketing w przedsiębiorstwie – ujęcie operacyjne [Marketing in the Enterprise – An Operational Approach]. PWE.

Pilarczyk, B. (1999). Promocja i reklama [Promotion and Advertising]. In H. Mruk (Ed.), Podstawy marketingu [Basics of Marketing] (pp. 217–246). Akademia Ekonomiczna w Poznaniu.

Polish Direct Sales Association. (2023). Polskie Stowarzyszenie Sprzedaży Bezpośredniej. Retrieved from https://pssb.pl/

Skibińska, A. (2022). Najpopularniejsze media społecznościowe w 2021 roku [Most Popular Social Media in 2021]. Artefakt. Retrieved from https://www.artefakt.pl/blog/epr/najpopularniejsze-media-spolecznosciowe-w-2021-roku Statcounter. (2022). Social media stats Poland. Retrieved from https://gs.statcounter.com/social-media-stats/all/poland/2021

Statista. (2022). Number of monthly active Facebook users worldwide as of 4th quarter 2021. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/

Stern, L. W., El-Ansary, A. I., & Coughlan, A. T. (2002). Kanały marketingowe [Marketing Channels]. Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa.

Sypniewska, B. A. (2013). Marketing wielopoziomowy – szansa czy zagrożenie [Multi-level Marketing – Opportunity or Threat]. Zeszyty Naukowe PWSZ w Płocku. Nauki Ekonomiczne, 17, 54–73.

Sztucki, T. (1999). Promocja: sztuka pozyskiwania nabywców [Promotion: The Art of Acquiring Customers]. Agencja Wydawnicza Placet.

TheFullStory. (2023). What is a good bounce rate? Retrieved from https://www.fullstory.com/blog/what-is-a-good-bounce-rate/

Unold, J. (2001). Systemy informacyjne marketingu [Marketing Information Systems]. Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego.

Vogelgegang, A. (2016). Potencjał multilevel marketingu [The Potential of Multi-level Marketing]. WiS Opcjon.

Waszczyk, M., & Radacki, S. (2005). Problemy moralne w sprzedaży bezpośredniej [Moral Issues in Direct Sales]. Pieniądze i Więź, 9, 63–73.

Wiktor, J. W. (2000). Promocja [Promotion]. In J. Altkorn (Ed.), Podstawy marketingu [Basics of Marketing]. Instytut Marketingu.

Wiktor, J. W. (2001). Promocja. System komunikacji przedsiębiorstwa z rynkiem [Promotion: The Enterprise’s Communication System with the Market]. PWN.

Wiktor, J. W. (2013). Komunikacja marketingowa: modele, struktury, formy przekazu [Marketing Communication: Models, Structures, Forms of Message]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Wiktor, J. W. (2018). Architektura systemu komunikacji wirtualnej – uwarunkowania i wyzwania [Architecture of the Virtual Communication System – Conditions and Challenges]. In B. Gregor & D. Kaczorowska-Spychalska (Eds.), Marketing w erze technologii cyfrowych. Nowoczesne koncepcje i wyzwania [Marketing in the Digital Technology Era: Modern Concepts and Challenges]. PWN.

Woźniak, B. (2004). Polityka promocji [Promotion Policy]. In W. Deluga (Ed.), Marketing w zarysie [Marketing in Outline] (pp. 151–172). Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Politechniki Koszalińskiej.

Wrenn, M. V. (2023). Multi-Level Marketing: A Neoliberal Institution. Journal of Economic Issues, 57(4), 1043–1061.

Żurawik, B., & Żurawik, W. (1996). Zarządzanie marketingiem w przedsiębiorstwie [Marketing Management in the Enterprise]. PWE.

Marketing communication is a significant or, as frequently referred to in scientific analyses and in the literature on the subject a key tool of marketing activities both at a strategic and operational level. At a strategic level, communication enables a company to transform its strategic ideas and concepts into actual market activities. A strategy which is significant from the perspective of the objectives of this article is a set of principles and values that constitute a basis for a company’s intended manner of functioning and future expansion (Wrzosek, 2012; Dyduch, 2013; Kaleta, 2013; Zakrzewska-Bielawska, 2022). As such, a strategy for functioning and development-with both elements constituting the core of a strategy — aims to design the boundary framework of market operations and the objectives, values and principles underlying implementation processes and determining an organization’s identity and vision. These elements of a strategy refer to the core document referred to as strategy as well as to overall operational activities within respective management functions and all functional areas (marketing, HR, accounting and finance) at an operational level. This statement, in its entirety, also refers to marketing — directing entrepreneurial activities towards the achievement of goals through strategy and market activities.

Marketing communication reflects strategic fundamental decisions related to a company’s identity and its organisational structure, and it sets directions for choosing information-based ways of creating, shaping and developing the markets. It represents a subsystem of a company’s marketing operational activities (apart from the other instruments of the mix such as McCarthy’s and Borden’s 4Ps, or Lauterborn’s 4Cs) which create a platform of dialogue with markets, stakeholders and the surrounding environment. It ensures the transmission of information which determines a company’s identity and the benefits of its sales offerings, and it affects customer needs and brand preferences, having an impact on demand and decreasing its price elasticity (De Pelsmacker, Geuens, &Van den Bergh, 2013; Bruhn, 2013; Wiktor, 2013; Juska, 2017). For example, P. Kotler and K.L. Keller define marketing communications as ”how firms attempt to inform, persuade and remind their customers — directly and indirectly — of products and brands they sell. […] It also represents the voice of the company and its brands; it is how companies establish dialogue and build relationships with consumers” (Kotler & Keller, 2012). The proposed definition refers, although indirectly, to all the fundamental functions of communication.

Marketing communication is a form of a company’s dialogue with markets, and it is a term and, simultaneously, a market reality that is a much broader concept than promotion. The concept of marketing communication embraces several significant components. First, it assumes the existence of a dialogue (according to the findings of sociology and communication theories), a two-way active interaction between process participants. Therefore, marketing communication, by definition, is based not only on the transmission of sales information but also assumes the acquisition of market information (through the marketing research of relevant messages), which is of key significance from the perspective of strategic and operational goals (Sojkin, 2009; Mazurek-Łopacińska, 2016).

The essence of communication is reflected in its multidimensional significance for the two major market players: selling parties and consumers, that is, the participants of the communication process.

Communication as a company’s dialogue with its environment is one of the major tools — apart from the other components of the marketing mix — in the process of shaping markets and consumer behaviour as well as in market rivalry. Communication is a means of expressing a company’s identity — it provides information on its operations, promotes the unique value of its offering, encourages purchasing, seeks to gain competitive advantage in the sector and the achievement of other strategic and operational corporate goals. It is the communication process that creates needs, new markets and market segments, shapes purchasing preferences, creates social brand equity and expresses the significance of value and dialogue in performing social and market functions by the two market players.

Marketing communication performs a crucial function as a tool for implementing a company’s strategy. It reflects the basic components of a company’s identity, its vision and mission, implementation strategies in specific market conditions as well as its values and principles underlying its operations (Maráková, 2016; Smith & Zook, 2016). Among the above elements, and in the context of the objectives of this article, special attention should be given to the goals of marketing communication, the declarations of value and the principles of promotional activities. Such elements themselves, the tools for implementing expansion strategies, contain relatively permanent components which correspond to core strategic decisions at a general level and to the entire organisation as well as to key functional areas including marketing. Marketing communication, a tool for implementing strategies, allows for overcoming the barrier of insufficient knowledge of the market and for shaping the market through diversification, sectoral boundary strategies and effective sectoral competition, ultimately leading to competitive advantage and successful performance on the market. It implies that marketing communication strategies and the related objectives, principles and implementation instruments should result from the adopted strategic goals which serve to implement a company’s mission. A mission does not only set general directions for corporate activities, but it also reflects a company’s values and how they are put into practice. This statement also applies to a company’s system of communication with the markets (Batra & Keller, 2016, s. 122–145; Eagle, Dahl, Czarnecka, & Lloyd, 2014; Hajduk, 2019; Zatwarnicka-Madura, 2019; Szymoniuk, 2019).

The significance of marketing communication from consumers’ perspective is widely discussed in theoretical and empirical studies on the subject as well as in interdisciplinary works. In a synthetic reflection on this issue, we only stress some selected important aspects related to the goals of this article. Communication is a platform for developing consumers’ knowledge of the markets and educating them in this area on the one hand, and, on the other hand, a tool for shaping brand needs and preferences, and a platform for creating a positive/negative image of a company and its brands.

The synthesis of the two dimensions of the above reflection is as follows: it can be concluded that marketing communication is a key characteristic of marketing orientation and, as such, constitutes a significant element of contemporary markets across all sectors. The role of communication is coupled with market development and diversification as well as increased demand along with the conditions of excess supply and increasing barriers to purchase. Such conditions require creating a company’s system of communication with markets, which is integrated with other marketing tools (Kliatchko, 2005; Percy, 2014; Juska, 2017; Keer & Richards, 2020).

The above-presented issues are of crucial significance. A broader analysis of these problems goes beyond the scope of this paper. The last issue mentioned above directs the presented considerations towards the role of the structure of communication functions and the area of their perception.

The functions of marketing communication reflect the significance attributed to this marketing instrument. They are presented in literatures in several configurations, and the entire set of them constitutes a wide range of factors that affect the markets.

This statement refers to the entire process of communication as well as to their particular structural tools: advertising, personal communication, additional promotion and PR activities used in both communication environments: the real world (offline) and the digital world (online). Also, it encourages a broader professional dispute over the significance of cognitive rigour in scientific research. The limitations of this article do not allow for contributing to this discussion, narrowing its content to the fundamental issues related to the paper’s main goals.

In this context, three issues are important from the perspective of the presented considerations. First, we identify three levels of communication function. Second, attention is given to their informative character. Third, the borders between them are not clear and they overlap. Each of the above issues is briefly discussed below.

The identification of three levels of communication is important as such, and it also helps in formulating empirical answers to the question posed by the title problem of this work. The three levels are as follows: the mission of a communication system — the fundamental function (level 1), basic functions (level 2), and specific functions performed by the particular tools of the system. The identification of three functional levels allows for focusing considerations on fundamental and strategic elements — the subject of the presented empirical research. The fundamental function is a synthetic description of a company’s major tasks performed in the process of its communication with the environment. It is the function of ensuring a company’s continuous informative presence in the markets (Wiktor, 2013, p. 57). Continuous communication in both environments of social communication (offline and online) enables a company to achieve its strategic goals and perform, in a synthetic dimension, the previously defined tasks. The achievement of these goals is conditioned by the necessity of continuous communication with the markets. This function — without going into much detail and defining operational activities — is a relatively easy task in the context of the digital transformation, the IT revolution and the development of the network society (Castells, 2010; Mazurek & Tkaczyk, 2016; Rodgers & Thorson, 2017; Gregor & Kaczorowska-Spychalska, 2018; Kotler, Kartajaya, & Setiawan, 2021). However, attention should be given here to some special requirements to be met by the process of communication-credibility, reliability and legal and ethical responsibility for the marketing content and messages. This aspect is referred to in this work and related empirical studies. Obviously, the fundamental function is general, but it also provides a useful platform for describing the functions identified at the two remaining levels. Levels 2 and 3 identify the basic functions of communication and the specific functions assigned to the particular tools of the system. This article only discusses the basic functions (level 2), as it aims to present a general synthetic and empirical assessment of the major functions of marketing communication: informative, persuasive and competitive functions.

The communication process performs three basic functions: informative, persuasive and competitive. They reflect the nature of communication-related activities carried out by all businesses. To some extent, they also refer to basic communication functions defined by sociology and social communication theory. What they all have in common is the informative character of promoting a company’s identity and its offering and the same way of influencing an addressee — a consumer. This work’s focus on the empirical measurement of the content and the assessment of the function of communication leads to a selective reflection and emphasis laid on those factors which may directly result in manipulation.

The informative function, by its very nature, is a company’s basic function of communication with its environment, creating a platform for transforming a marketing strategy into the tactics of market activities based on the marketing mix composition. The area of reception of this function is broad and is reflected at all levels of marketing communication. The content and character of the informative function are strictly related to the objectives of business operations communicated by a company as well as to the mechanism of consumers’ market behaviour. Generally, it applies to each of the five stages of the purchasing process: creating needs and preferences, seeking market information, assessing purchase variants, buying decisions and evaluating. Each stage, widely analysed in literatures, has a specific analytical dimension. In this context, special attention is given to the possibility of affecting the particular stages through marketing activities, particularly through promotion programmes. Promotion is closely related to the basic function of communication, that is, persuasion. It aims to initiate, shape and retain consumers’ desirable actions and behaviour at each stage of the purchasing process. Under contemporary market conditions, marked by excess and, to some extent, manipulated supply, persuasion becomes a dominant function of a company’s communication with the markets. In sociology, social psychology and communication theory persuasion is regarded as a major non-manipulative form of influencing people. This view is shared by such authors as Cialdini (2008), Perloff (2017), Doliński (2005), Doliński and Gamian-Wilk (2014),Tokarz (2010) and Duffy and Thorson (2016). Is it true of marketing as well? This important question can open the way for broad theoretical analyses, debates and empirical studies. ‘To persuade’ means to cause somebody to believe in something/to do something, and according to social sciences, persuasion should be based on unbiased and precise information, representing a transparent way of communication. It leads to a consensus and is aimed to convince somebody of somebody else’s case (in this context, this personification seems to be justified) and to achieve common goals. In this approach, persuasion is identified with an impartial and rational manner of exerting influence, although in the world of advertising, especially in the sector of consumer goods, a special role is played by emotional arguments. They tend to appeal to things valued in a given culture or market segment — truth, kindness, love, friendship, family, ecology, environment, etc. The methods of persuasion can have a positive or negative impact on recipients’ behaviour (Perloff, 2017; Danciu, 2014). The area of reception of the persuasion function is broad, similar to a set of specific persuasive promotion activities and tools. It relates to the system of values and principles used by a company to communicate its identity and offering. The persuasive function aims to promote a company’s offering in a way that ensures the acquisition, retention and loyalty of addressees, leading to the creation of a permanent customer base (see: Kotler, Armstrong, Saunders, & Wong, 2003; Bruh, 2013; Janiszewska & Kall, 2012). In this context, the persuasion function of communication is related to the third basic function — the competitive function. This function is performed by creating a set of the non-price instruments of market rivalry. Such instruments include the informative characteristics of a company’s offering and its presentation in the form of persuasive arguments, encouraging consumers to make a specific buying decision in the situation in which a package of substitute brands is available in a given sector (Porter, 1980, 2001). The area of perception of the competitive function manifests itself in two dimensions. The first one refers to a company’s assurance of the attractiveness and impact of its instruments of communication with the environment. It is also strictly related to the previously mentioned functions, particularly to the persuasion function and its character. The second area is based on creating a recipient’s platform of evaluation, which ensures a company’s ‘informative victory’ over promotion campaigns launched by competitors. It is a significant dimension of the identification of the communication function and the character of the competitive function of promotion (communication).

The above reflection leads to an important conclusion that stresses the role of a company’s specific values and principles of communicating with its environment: those elements which can, and do constitute, a system of shared and approved social standards and behaviours in a given culture. These elements determine the acceptance or rejection of specific forms and tools of marketing communication at a social level. The argument in favour of this statement is the socially based and critical reception of advertising and strong convictions about its manipulative character and the violation of ethical standards and generally accepted principles of community life.

The third, previously mentioned aspect, is the arbitrary character of classifying communication functions. Each function is a carrier of information, and the adopted classification and approach reflect a different focus on the promotion content. It indicates that the presented classification of communication functions can be treated as arbitrary. These functions, through the area of reception and their character, overlap and complement one another, and their combination represents a company’s basic tasks in its communication with the environment.

Empirical Verification — Research Results

Research methodology

The empirical study, under the adopted model and the structuralisation of the discussed problem, aimed to investigate the degree and ways in which the three basic functions of communication are performed in practice and are reflected in companies’ strategies. Three areas of corporate communication strategies were verified: (1) the objectives of communicated messages, reflecting the informative function, (2) the principles and values of messages from the perspective of their impact on recipients and their persuasion function, and (3) the ways of using communication in the sectoral competition, related to the competitive function of messages. The proposed approach is selective. All the functions are mutually interlinked; similarly, the identified areas are not autonomous and separate forms of impact on the environment — they are explicitly interdependent. However, the identification of these areas allows for outlining a certain approach to the problem and for contributing to a debate over corporate marketing communication strategies and their functions at theoretical, empirical and research levels. In this approach, the article presents selected elements of the evaluation of strategies, goals, principles and values used by companies to develop their communication strategies, as well as communication forms and tools aimed to gain competitive advantage in a given sector. The study was conducted at the turn of 2019 and 2020 under grant NCN (No. 2018/29/B/HS4/00563). They had a wide scope, covering a group of 103 enterprises representing the business sector, while a representative consumer survey (N = 1004) was conducted among Polish adult inhabitants. The detailed results are presented in a monograph Information Asymmetry in Online Advertising (Wiktor & Sanak- -Kosmowska, 2021). The analysed enterprises represented production, trading and service sectors. The selection of the participants was based on random-quote sampling, with consideration given to the industry and the number of employees. About the number of employees (EU criteria), the analysed entities represented three groups: small (47%), medium (30%) and large (23%). The study employed open interviews based on the CATI methodology.

The informative function vs. the goals of a marketing communication strategy in the light of companies’ declarations

The goals of marketing communication, declared by the surveyed companies, play a major role in developing their marketing strategies. The adopted approach assumes that they can constitute a concrete empirical manifestation of the informative function of marketing communication. This function relates to a relatively permanent impact on the markets and an explicit declaration of a company’s identity. Therefore, it plays a major role in designing all the specific components of a communication system. The conducted analysis identifies eight elements — potential targets — but it accepts the possibility of extending the ‘cafeteria’ (list of possible responses) and the content of companies’ declarations. As many as 84% of the surveyed businesses regard increased sales as the main goal of marketing communication. It may seem obvious, but it was not the only indicated goal. Many surveyed companies pointed to other objectives of their communication with the markets. Great importance was also attributed to building brand awareness (73% indications) and building customer relationships (67%). Such goals refer to communication and relationships, and their role should be stressed in this context. Sales-related goals concern short periods, while the other two goals are achieved in longer periods. It is longer periods that reflect companies’ continuity of communication activities and their efforts aimed to ensure a permanent informative presence in the markets and the media. From this perspective, the results of the study should be regarded as significant.

The significant elements of the surveyed companies’ declared structure of goals also refer to the competitive function of communication, that is, the third area of our empirical research. The above statement can be referred to the previous reflection on the complementary character and overlapping of all communication functions. It is not possible to draw clear-cut borders between them in theoretical considerations or in identifying separate research areas. In this context, two specific responses given by the surveyed companies deserve special attention: strengthening a competitive position (a company’s increased competitiveness — 54% of indications), and acting in response to competitors’ activities in the sector (37%). Such results clearly correspond to the previously discussed role of marketing as a non-price instrument of sectoral competition. The competitive function of promotion gains in significance in contemporary markets, particularly in the situation of an excess supply and an increasing number of similar-quality products offered by competitors in the sector. Each basic function (informative and persuasive) should contain, or even suggest to consumers, an a priori evaluation of offerings in the context of competitive products/services. The results of the study seem to point to the significant elements of setting the objectives of a marketing communication system: the intensity of competitive conditions in particular sectors has a major impact on the function of communication. The informative and persuasion functions assume a new role as a result of a great emphasis laid on competition-related issues. The results of this stage of the study provide empirical confirmation of the function of communication as a key instrument in implementing a marketing strategy.

The persuasion function in the context of the values
and principles of a company’s communication with the markets

The second research area focused on the principles and values adopted in the process of a company’s communication with the markets. These factors have a value per se, but they also perform an instrumental function, which relates to the content and designators of the persuasion function of marketing communication as well as to the area of reception and the ways of influencing and creating an atmosphere of a favourable attitude to a company’s offering. In this approach to this problem, emphasis is laid on identifying how a company influences the recipients of messages, the environment, markets and stakeholders. It is also a proposal for the conceptualisation of an approach to the analyses of persuasive marketing as an integrated system and, simultaneously, as a set of particular components in offline and online communication.

From a methodological perspective, empirical verification of values and principles adopted by companies in developing their communication strategies assumes the form of an open question. The surveyed entities were requested to describe three basic values underlying a company’s communication with the markets. The question was asked in a broader context of the fundamental social values which govern the rules of public life and which are also crucial in business activities. These values included patriotism, trust, stability and integrity-universal values, which, because of their social significance and acceptance, can be referred to in companies’ promotion campaigns.

The results of the study point to 56 values spontaneously declared by 103 surveyed enterprises. Obviously, these values are attributed to various degrees of importance. Due to the limitations of this article, the presented analysis is general and synthetic. The basic value of marketing communication is the quality of an offer (product, brand, service). This value is regarded as the most important one by all the surveyed companies, regardless of their sector, number of employees or core business. Quality, as declared by respondents, constitutes the essence and core of the Unique Value of Advertising (UVA) (Wiktor, 2013), or, as Reeves (1991) refers to it, the Unique Selling Point (USP). It constitutes a major component of a market stimulation strategy (a price-quality strategy), the manner of influencing consumers and affecting their needs and purchasing preferences, directly reflecting the persuasive character of communication. Therefore, there is no doubt that the quality of an offer, as a key value of communication, is strictly related to the two other functions, that is, the informative and competitive ones.

Importantly, according to the respondents’ declarations, performing the persuasive function of communication is based on such values as reliability, integrity, price, and professionalism (indicated by 3/4 of respondents). Equal significance (more than 55% of indications) in marketing communication and persuasion strategies is attributed to such values as trust, stability, timeliness, image, reliability, ecology, customer relationships and innovativeness. Some other values (including professionalism, loyalty, courage, passions, education, personal culture and specialisation) had lower positions in the ranking of ‘three most important values’ of marketing communication, which does not mean, however, that they are less significant in specific marketing operational activities. A detailed analysis by company and sector pointed to relatively similar responses.

The competitive function vs. the promotion forms of competition in the sector

The third research area was the identification of companies’ approach to competition about the use of the competitive function of communication. The conducted analysis refers to the previously presented theoretical reflection on the structure of the communication function. It is not an in-depth analysis of competition mechanisms. It aims to present the empirical significance of marketing communication — by describing its informative and persuasion functions — in the process of competition in a given sector. This issue is addressed earlier in the paper in the form of a theoretical reflection (the designators of the competitive function). Here, we present how enterprises use marketing communication attributes to affect (strengthen or maintain) their competitive position in the sector. It is a well-known fact that a competitive position is affected by all marketing activities of strategic or operational character, including a company’s continuous communication with the markets and the effective performance of communication functions.

The conducted survey aimed to describe the degree of significance that enterprises attribute to the competitive function of communication activities. The research study adopted an important assumption: the companies were to express their views on the perceived and actually experienced situations in the sector and their assessment of competitors’ competitive activities. This methodological approach aimed to obtain unbiased opinions and assessments without disclosing the respondents’ own strategy based on competitive marketing communication. The study covered 8 characteristics of the potential role of promotion (online advertising) in the process of gaining a competitive edge.

We present three significant elements of assessments, obtained based on extensive analysis. The first one relates to the surveyed companies’ strong conviction about the great significance of the competitive function of marketing communication, especially online advertising. This conviction is declared by more than 70% of respondents (72%), and the synthetic assessments of this tool (on a 1-5 scale) is at the level of 4.03. Differences in the distribution of responses by company size are relatively small — 0.22 points (4.15 — small businesses, and 3.93 — medium and large entities). This assessment is strongly correlated with the respondents’ shared conviction that the intensity of sectoral competition requires enterprises to rely their advertising campaigns on targeted ads, focused on the precisely identified segment and market niches. This conviction is shared by 77% of the surveyed enterprises, and the synthetic assessment is at the level of 4.05. This is the second important issue explored in the study. The third element, related to the previous ones, is the emphasis laid on the specific character of a communication strategy. The increasing intensity of competition in particular market segments requires advertising to communicate the superior character of a company’s offering as compared with competitive ads. This view is shared by 81% of the surveyed enterprises, and their assessments are at a high level of 4.15 (4.00 — small companies, 4.26 — medium and large entities). This conviction can be referred to the previously stressed significance of the UVA or the USP — the unique values of the communicated content and a platform for competing in the sector through marketing communication.

Concluding Remarks

The article attempts to present an empirical verification of the functions of marketing communication through an assessment of companies’ promotion activities. The first part of the work focuses on the morphology of functions performed by a company’s communication with the markets. The basic functions of marketing communication systems (informative, persuasive and competitive) are discussed in a broader context of the mission of marketing communication-ensuring a company’s continuous informative presence in the markets and the media. These functions are assessed in the context of the area of perception-their content and characteristics.

In the second part — about the results of empirical research, selected elements of the assessment of enterprise strategy in shaping marketing communication are presented, including how enterprises shape three basic functions: informational, persuasive and competitive. The research allowed answering the question of what is the reception of the basic functions of marketing communication by enterprises, and what is their empirical content in specific market activities. The objectives of the marketing communication strategy are a concrete expression of the implementation of the information function. These objectives are recognised by companies in two periods: short and long. In the former, the increase in sales (84% of indications of enterprises) is of fundamental importance, and in the second-building relationships and brand awareness. The values and principles of communication were linked to the strategy of influencing the market-the content of the persuasive function. All surveyed companies (N = 103) put the quality of the offer in the first place in communication. This is a basic and universal value. About 3/4 of companies declare reliability, honesty, price and professionalism among their values and principles. These are significant elements of the UVA or the USP. The results of the research indicate clear importance of communication attributed by companies (72%) in shaping market position. There is a widespread belief among companies that advertising must communicate the superiority of the offer over the advertisements of competitors and be an important tool for competition in the sector. The results of the research indicate the interpenetration of marketing communication functions. It is not possible to create limits of delimitation between them, both in theoretical terms and in the practice of market activities of enterprises.

The presented results provide insights into significant empirical interdependencies between the fundamental marketing communication functions and the areas of their impact on the practice of companies’ marketing activities. Also, they can encourage further research on the multidimensional aspects and significance of marketing communication in the contemporary world.

References

1. Batra, R., & Keller, K. L. (2016). Integrating marketing communication: New findings, new lessons, and new ideas. Journal of Marketing, 80(6), 122–145.
2. Bruhn, M. (2013). Kommunikationspolitik, Systematischer Einsatz der Kommunikation für Unternehmen. München, Germany: Verlag Franz Vahlen.
3. Castells, M. (2010). Społeczeństwo sieci. Warszawa, Poland: PWN.
4. Cialdini, R. (2008). Influence: Science and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
5. Danciu, V. (2014). Manipulative marketing: Persuasion and manipulation of the consumer through advertising. Theoretical and Applied Economics, 21(2), 19–34.
6. De Pelsmacker, P., Geuens, M., & Van den Bergh, J. (2013). Marketing communications: A European perspective. Harlow, England: Pearson Education.
7. Doliński, D. (2005). Techniki wpływu społecznego. Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
8. Doliński, D., & Gamian-Wilk, M. (Eds.). (2014). Przestrzenie manipulacji społecznej.
Warszawa, Poland: PWN.
9. Duffy, M., & Thorson, E. (Eds.). (2016). Persuasion ethics today. New York, NY: Routledge.
10. Dyduch, W. (2013). Twórcza strategia organizacji. Katowice, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach.
11. Eagle, L., Dahl, S., Czarnecka, B., & Lloyd, J. (2014). Marketing communications. London, England: Routledge.
12. Gregor, B., & Kaczorowska-Spychalska, D. (Eds.). (2018). Marketing w erze technologii cyfrowych. Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
13. Hajduk, G. (2019). Zarządzanie komunikacją marketingową. Intregracja, nowe media, outsourcing. Warszawa, Poland: Poltext.
14. Janiszewska, K., & Kall, J. (2012). Strategia reklamowa. Warszawa, Poland: PWE.
15. Juska, M. J. (2017). Integrated marketing communication: Advertising and promotion in a digital world. New York, NY: Routledge.
16. Kaleta, A. (2013). Realizacja strategii. Warszawa, Poland: PWE.
17. Keer, G., & Richards, J. (2021). Redefining advertising in research and practice. International Journal of Advertising, 40(2), pp. 175–198. doi:10.1080/ 02650487.2020.1769407
18. Kliatchko, J. (2005). Towards a new definition of integrated marketing communications (IMC). International Journal of Advertising, 24(1), 7–34.
18. Kotler, Ph., Armstrong, G., Saundres, J. A., & Wong, V. (2003). Principles of marketing. European edition: Pearson Education.
19. Kotler, Ph., Kartajaya, H., & Setiawan, I. (2021). Marketing 5.0. technology for humanity. John Wiley & Sons.
20. Kotler, Ph., & Keller, K. L. (2012). Marketing. Poznań, Poland: Rebis.
21. Maráková, V. (2016). Marketingová komunikácia v cestovnom ruchu. Bratislava, Slovakia: Wolters Kluwer.
22. Mazurek, G., & Tkaczyk, J. (Eds.). (2016). The impact of the digital world on management and marketing. Warszawa, Poland: Poltext.
23. Mazurek-Łopacińska, K. (Ed.). (2016). Badania marketingowe. Metody, techniki i obszary aplikacji na współczesnym rynku. Warszawa, Poland: PWN.
24. Percy, L. (2014). Strategic integrated marketing communications. London, England: Routledge.
25. Perloff, R. M. (2017). The dynamics of persuasion: Communication and attitudes in the twenty-first century. London, England: Routledge.
26. Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York, NY: Free Press.
27. Porter, M. E. (2001). Strategy and the internet. Harvard Business Review, 03, 2–19.
28. Reeves, R. (1991). Reality in advertising. Harvard: Widener Classics.
29. Rodgers, S., & Thorson, E. (Ed.). (2017). Digital advertising: Theory and research. New York, NY: Routledge.
30. Smith, P. R., & Zook, Z. (2016). Marketing communications: Offline and offline integration, engagement and analytics. Kogan Page.
31. Sojkin, B. (2009). Informacyjne podstawy decyzji marketingowych. Warszawa, Poland: PWE.
32. Szymoniuk, B. (2019). Komunikacja marketingowa w klastrach i uwarunkowania jej skuteczności. Lublin, Poland: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Lubelskiej.
33. Tokarz, M. (2010). Argumentacja, perswazja, manipulacja. Wykłady z teorii komunikacji. Gdańsk, Poland: GWP.
34. Wiktor, J. W. (2013). Komunikacja marketingowa. Modele, struktury, formy przekazu. Warszawa, Poland: PWN.
35. Wiktor, J. W., & Sanak-Kosmowska, K. (2021). Information asymmetry in online advertising. London, England: Routledge.
36. Wrzosek, W. (Ed.). (2012). Strategie marketingowe. Warszawa, Poland: PWE.
37. Zakrzewska-Bielawska, A. (2022). Strategie rozwoju przedsiębiorstw. Warszawa, Poland: PWE.
38. Zatwarnicka-Madura, B. (2019). Modele komunikacji a postacie w przekazie reklamowym. Rzeszów, Poland: Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Rzeszowskiej.