The pursuit of beauty is as old as mankind – throughout history, people have tried to improve their attractiveness and enhance their beauty. Aesthetic medicine, often considered as ancient as medicine itself (Krueger et al., 2013), traces its roots back to early civilizations. The ancient Egyptians, for instance, used oils, salt, alabaster, and milk to aesthetically improve the skin of their body and face (Brody et al., 2000). Nowadays, with rapid technological advancements and ongoing developments in medical science, aesthetic medicine offers patients/clients the possibility of seemingly eternal youth and an ideal figure (Napiwodzka-Bulek, 2017). These modern methods provide women as well as men the opportunity to maintain a young look and to age in the best possible way, while also significantly enhancing patients’ quality of life (Welsch, 2005; Asscher, 2014).

The aesthetic medicine market has emerged as a significant segment of the self-financed medical industry (Lin & Yen, 2020). The global aesthetic medicine market size was valued at USD 82.46 billion in 2023 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.3% from 2024 to 2030 (Grand View Research, 2024). Medical tourism, an influential factor in this growth, exhibited a compound annual growth rate of 15% by 2018 (Chistobaev & Semenova, 2018). In Europe, Spain is notably prominent in aesthetic medicine, with regulations permitting cosmetic procedures for patients as young as 14 years old (Pustułka & Jędrzejczak, 2018).

In Poland, the value of the aesthetic medicine market was estimated at 112 milions USD in 2022 (Posełek, 2024). The rates of individuals interested in improving their external appearance have steadily increased over time. Notably, male patients are becoming more frequent visitors to aesthetic medicine clinics. Men are increasingly self-aware, with their external appearance influencing their sense of attractiveness, self-confidence, and masculinity (Załuski, 2023).

The development of the aesthetic medicine market is shaped by several current trends, including:

• personalized treatments,
• cell-based therapies,
• increased integration of artificial intelligence (AI),
• the use of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies, and
• advances in non-surgical technologies.

The distinctive characteristics of the aesthetic medicine market – such as comparatively high costs, lack of public funding, individualized services and outcomes, and subjective assessments of appearance – play a significant role in determining patient satisfaction. Importantly, satisfaction in aesthetic medicine differs significantly from satisfaction with other medical treatments. This distinction underscores the need for further investigation into consumer behavior within this market (Ankiel et al., 2021). A number of factors contribute to the limited understanding of this field, including the following:

• Aesthetic medicine is a relatively new area of medical study, having been the subject of limited research from economic, sociological, and psychological perspectives.
• Services in aesthetic medicine often remain an intimate topic; minimal downtime allows patients to recover privately, which may lead to reluctance in participating in studies and consequently smaller sample sizes (Liao et al., 2019).

The primary objective of the present study was to identify and evaluate the determinants of satisfaction among patients/clients with aesthetic medicine treatments that are based on innovative technologies. A secondary aim was to analyze commonly performed procedures (from the perspectives of both doctors and patients) and assess patient satisfaction levels.

2. Theoretical background

Aesthetic medicine employs minimally invasive methods to prevent skin aging and reduce fat tissue. It is often referred to as “wish-fulfilling medicine,” as its procedures are directed by patients’ desires, seeking to improve their quality of life and mental well-being. One way to define aesthetic medicine is medical interventions to prevent and manage skin aging, thereby enhancing patients’ appearance and subjective well-being (Boon & Tan, 2007; Ankiel et al., 2021). As such, unlike traditional medicine, aesthetic medicine does not seek to treat diseases. Patients seeking such treatments are typically healthy images who wish to enhance their physical image (Rymkiewicz, 2018).

Aesthetic medicine often works in tandem with cosmetology, which focuses on contemporary and evolving treatments. These treatments are tailored to meet consumer demands for preventative care against skin aging (Pfenninger & Fowler, 2011). The integration of medical and cosmetological techniques ensures a comprehensive approach to patient needs.

Table 1 outlines a classification of aesthetic medicine treatments.

The number of aesthetic medicine clinics is increasingly significantly each year, driven by growing consumer interest. Non-surgical treatments, including botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A), hyaluronic acid, other dermal fillers, and laser treatments, have been the fastest-growing procedures in aesthetic medicine over the past five years (Vlahos & Bove, 2015). For instance, the use of botulinum toxin A injections has surged remarkably since their first use in this setting in the mid-1980s (Dover et al., 2018; Carruthers & Carruthers, 1998). Current aesthetic uses of BoNT-A include treating glabellar lines, forehead wrinkles, periorbital and perioral lines, platysmal bands, horizontal necklines, and the masseter muscle, among many other applications (Blitzer et al., 1993; Dorizas et al., 2014). Aesthetic medicine is a rapidly evolving field, propelled by innovative technologies and advancements in treatment materials (Przylipiak, 2017). Modern aesthetic medicine employs a wide range of lasers, energy-based devices, and natural or synthetic fillers (Redaelli & Ignaciuk, 2000). Technological progress has significantly expanded the possibilities for aesthetic treatments, transforming the delivery of skincare within clinical dermatology. In particular, the harmful effects of UV irradiation have spurred the development of therapies aimed at reversing photodamage. Among these, laser technologies have become a cornerstone of skin rejuvenation treatments (Theodorou et al., 2021).

Table 2 presents the growth in innovative aesthetic medicine services since 1965. Research papers since 2018 have highlighted the introduction of the newest technology, High-Intensity Focused Electromagnetic Field (HIFEM) used in body contouring and urinary incontinence treatments, and address the safety and effectiveness of this technology (Jacob & Paskowa, 2018; Samuels, 2018; Samuels et al., 2019). A variety of technologies and less invasive methods to treat a wide range of beauty defects and difficulties in daily life are constantly being improved. The advancement of medical technology, the provision of professional services, and the functional training of aesthetic medical practitioners all significantly contribute to the profitability of enterprises in this field (Skountridaki, 2017).

Consumer satisfaction in aesthetic medicine is understood as a psychological state in which the perceived characteristics of the product or services match consumer expectations (Hunt, 1998). In this context, patient satisfaction depends on the post-treatment effects. Many objective and sub-objective factors influence patient satisfaction, such as treatment availability, the ongoing care process, health improvements health, and service price (Małecka & Marcinkowski, 2007; Ankiel & Kuczyńska, 2018). One of the most important determinants of patient satisfaction is the experience and expertise of the medical doctor who is carrying the treatments, who should provide patients with positive emotions and a sense of safety. Patient trust, doctors’ empathy, attentive listening, and professionalism are critical factors in aesthetic medicine. Moreover, effective communication between doctor and patient provides an opportunity to thoroughly understand the patients’ concerns and fosters a sense of trust in the doctor (Bukowska-Piestrzyńska, 2017).

Patient satisfaction is a key metric for evaluating a healthcare organization’s success. In the United States, physician bonuses are linked to patients’ evaluation of their interaction with doctors (Funk et al., 2012). A variety of tools and measures have been developed to estimate patients satisfaction and evaluate specific outcomes, which are important to receiving aesthetic medicine services (Cohen & Scuderi, 2017). For instance, Likert-type scales may be used to rate patients’ satisfaction, such as the Facial Lines Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire (Cox et al., 2003). Another instrument is the Facial Line Outcome questionnaire, which evaluates specific outcomes such as perception of attractiveness, self-perception of aging, and extended facial lies, which may project expressions such as stress, anger, or simply looking tired which the patient does not actually feel (Dayan et al., 2019). For a more objective and reproducible assessment of aesthetic procedures and patient satisfaction, the Aesthetic Numeric Analog Scale has been introduced. This scale builds on established tools such as the Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale and the 11-Point-Box-Scale to create a standardized approach (Funk et al., 2012).

The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is a versatile tool employed across various service industries, including healthcare, to gauge how likely a patient or other consumer is to recommend a service. In this framework, consumers are categorized as Promoters (those who actively recommend the services), Passives (those who are satisfied, but do not actively recommend the services); and Detractors (consumers who actively discourage others from using the services) (Reichheld, 2003). NPS is increasingly being used to measure patient satisfaction , serving as a simple yet effective indicator of overll cosumer experience.

One notable application of NPS is the Family and Friends Test, widely used by the National Health Services (NHS) of the United Kingdom to measure overall patient satisfaction and likelihood of recommendation (Stirling et al., 2013; Wilberforce et al., 2019). The straightforward and unambiguous nature of the NPS methodology has contributed to its growing popularity in consumer satisfaction studies, often outperforming alternative models like SERVQUAL or SERVPERF in terms of usability and ease of interpretation (Parasuraman et al., 1985; Cronin & Taylor, 1992).

However, while NPS and similar tools have been extensively studied and applied in fields like plastic surgery, dentistry, and orthodontics (De Vries et al., 2014; Sharp et al., 2014; Abbas & Karadavut, 2017), aesthetic medicine remains underexplored in the context of consumer satisfaction. Existing research on consumer behavior in healthcare highlights significant gaps in understanding the determinants of satisfaction among patients undergoing aesthetic medicine treatments and the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty of consumers/patients.

The present study, therefore, aims to identify the satisfaction indicators of the clients using innovative aesthetic medicine services based on innovative technologies. Evaluating client satisfaction in this context will enable a more precise identification of patient expectations, allowing practitioners to better align their offerings with client needs.

3. Materials and methods

The research process was structured in two stages, combining both quantitative and qualitative methods to ensure a comprehensive analysis of satisfaction indicators among clients and practitioners of aesthetic medicine services.

Stage 1: quantitative survey
The first stage involved a quantitative survey conducted through direct interviews at aesthetic medicine clinics located in selected large cities in Poland (with more than 500,000 inhabitants) – Poznań, Kraków, Warsaw, Łódź and Gdynia – in the period from May to June 2019. As a research tool, we used a direct interview questionnaire prepared and verified in piloting. The research population included consumers declaring regular use of aesthetic medicine services. The research sample included 745 respondents; the selection of respondents was based on purposive sampling (Tongco, 2007). The reliability of the construction of the questionnaire was verified using the Alpha-Cronbach test (the coefficient was 0.81, indicating good reliability).

Two crucial aspects of the research are worth emphasizing (Ankiel et al., 2021):

• the distinctive research site: large aesthetic medicine clinics in the above-mentioned cities (each with more than 500 patients in their client bases),
• the significant size of the research sample composed of patients of these clinics (n=745).

A review of the existing literature shows that there have been relatively few comparable research attempts in aesthetic medicine, mainly due to the difficulties of obtaining consent for participation of the patients in a direct questionnaire. These challenges arise from the very personal nature of the procedures and the sensitive reasons for their implementation (Angelini & Carmignani, 2017; Betancur et al., 2014).

Stage 2: qualitative survey

The second stage involved a qualitative survey conducted among aesthetic medicine doctors. This phrase aimed to identify the key determinants influencing the development of treatment offerings in aesthetic medicine. The survey was carried out in August 2019, among physicians attending the XXI 5 Continent – Congress Barcelona, and in September 2019, among attendees of the XX International Congress of the Polish Society of Aesthetic Medicine and Anti-Aging in Warsaw. The research sample included 20 respondents – doctors from Poland, the United States, and Spain. Individual in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted using a pre-tested direct interview questionnaire to explore the perspectives of medical professionals.

The satisfaction survey of patients using aesthetic medicine services in Poland was carried out using the Net Promoter Score technique.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Identification the most popular innovative aesthetic medicine treatments

Continuous technological advances and the evolution of aesthetic medicine techniques have significantly expanded the options available to patients, enabling the use of non-invasive or minimally invasive techniques to improve the external appearance and address signs of skin and body aging. The primary goals driving modern aesthetic medicine are to reduce the invasiveness of treatments and shorten the recovery time while maintaining the best possible results.

Striving to meet evolving trends in consumer expectations, manufactures of Energy Based-Devices (EBDs) are continually introducing innovative technologies. Among the latest technologies to be introduced into the aesthetic medicine market is the High-Intensity Focused Electromagnetic Field (HIFEM). In Poland, distribution of HIFEM devices began in 2019. HIFEM is used for body contouring treatments and treating urinary incontinence (Jacob & Paskowa, 2018). Owners of aesthetic medicine clinics and medical doctors can choose among various medical devices and fillers, and other injection materials. However, the wide array of available equipment and materials poses challenges in creating the most effective and appealing service offerings. The selection process requires careful consideration of consumer preferences, market trends, and the specific benefits of each technology. The most popular aesthetic medicine services in medical doctors’ opinions are shown in Table 3.

The most popular aesthetic medicine services selected by medical doctors is hyaluronic acid treatment. Hyaluronic acid is commonly used to fill the wrinkles, giving the client/patient a younger and smoother skin surface. It is also used to enhance the volume of the cheeks and to augment the lips. Its popularity is largely due to the low percentage of post-treatment complications. Other fillers, such as autologous fat tissue or collagen, cause post-treatment complications more often (Carruthers & Carruthers, 2011).

The second most popular aesthetic medicine treatment indicated by medical doctors is botulinum toxin type A injections – one of the most widely used treatments for reducing signs of skin aging. BoNT-A works by inhibiting the secretion of acetylcholine, leading to the relaxation of the facial muscles and making the face appear smoother and younger (Baumann et al., 2016). Additionally, neurologists use it to treat migraine headaches.

The third most popular aesthetic treatment services is laser hair removal (60% of indications by the medical doctors). Laser hair removal is based on selective thermolysis, which targets melanin in the hair to produce a localized thermal effect, damaging the hair follicle and stopping hair growth (Lanigan, 2000). This treatment provides satisfactory post-treatment outcomes.

Next most frequently, medical doctors selected PDO thread treatments (25% indications). PDO threads are applied under the face skin, providing a revitalizing and lifting effect (Przylipiak, 2017). The least popular aesthetic medicine treatment, as indicated by the physicians, is laser telangiectasia removal (with only 10% indications). However, despite its lower popularity, this treatment remains the only effective option for addressing flushing – an involuntary or temporary reddening of the face, neck, and décolletage caused by factors such as temperature changes, physical activity, or consuming hot and spicy foods – and telangiectasia, which involves the chronic dilation of small blood vessels, resulting in visible dark red or light red blotches on the skin.

The popularity of innovative aesthetic medicine services as ranked by the patients surveyed, on the other hand, is shown in Table 4.

Based on patient responses, botulinum toxin type A injections (75% indications) are the most popular aesthetic medicine treatment. This is followed closely by procedures based on hyaluronic acid injections (67% indications). The third most popular selection is laser hair removal (37% indications), with lip augmentation ranking next (34% indications). While this latter service is typically performed by using hyaluronic acid, doctors might also apply collagen or silicon.

The next innovative treatment in the patients’ ranking is microneedle mesotherapy (25% indications). This treatment has gained its popularity due to its versatility in treating various conditions, such as alopecia or selected skin inflammations (Jager et al., 2011). Ranking next are laser telangiectasia removal (20% indications) and fractional ablative laser eCO2 (18% indications). The fractional ablative laser is particularly notable for its effectiveness in scar removal and skin resurfacing. This treatment works by damaging targeted areas of the skin to stimulate the repair process, which shortens collagen fibers and results in smoother, more delicate skin (Alexiades-Armenakas et al., 2008). Despite being one of the most invasive treatments in aesthetic medicine, it remains a highly rated and sought-after service.

The next most popular aesthetic medicine treatments are High Intensity Focused Ultrasounds and Dermapen® treatment and face volumetry (both with 17% indications). Contemporary High Intensity Focused Ultrasounds (HIFU) is one of the most effective methods of non-invasive skin lifting. This treatment’s main aim is to provide to focused thermal damage in deep layers of the skin or fat tissue (Wasiluk, 2007). Dermapen®, in turn, is a treatment that uses superficial skin needling to start skin self-recovery (Hou et al., 2017). Volumetry treatment gives increasing volume to tissues in the checks, jawline, etc. (Baumann et al., 2016). Other treatments were indicated by less than 15% of respondents and were therefore not included in this analysis.

In summary, aesthetic medicine treatments incorporating innovative techniques such as laser therapy and HIFU are very popular due to their fast post-treatment effects and minimal recovery time. The findings of this part of the present study may be invaluable for medical doctors and the owners of aesthetic medicine clinics in shaping their service offerings to better align with patient preferences and expectations.

4.2. Aesthetic medicine services – consumer satisfaction

This study study aimed to evaluate the satisfaction of patients receiving aesthetic medicine treatments based on innovative technologies, performed at aesthetic medicine clinics in large Polish cities. Figure 1 shows the extent to which post-treatment effects complied with patient expectations.

Most of the respondents making use of aesthetic medicine services in large cities in Poland positively assessed the adequacy of those services in meeting their expectations (59% reported that the service was as expected, 16% that it was above their expectations, and 18% that it exceeded significantly beyond their expectations) (Fig. 1). Respondents highlighted such aspects as the clinic’s prestige, its range of facilities (devices and fillers), positive energy, and the quality of the information provided by the clinic. Addressing any post-treatment complications was also deemed crucial, as it enhances patients’ sense of safety (Ankiel et al., 2021). About 6% of respondents indicated that the post-treatment effects were below their expectations, while only 1% indicated that they fell significantly below their expectations.

In this context, it is important to stress that the main contraindication for all aesthetic medicine services is having unreal expectations. Sometimes, the patient’s expectations may be simply impossible to meet. Moreover, in some cases, the patient’s state of health may preclude certain medical procedure from being carried out.

In summary, a majority of respondents were found to be pleased with the outcomes of aesthetic medicine services. Treatments that align with or exceed patient expectations positively influence satisfaction, enhance quality of life, and contribute to better overall well-being. Hence, addressing both procedural outcomes and the holistic patient experience is key to maintaining high levels of satisfaction in aesthetic medicine services.

The main objective of this study was to identify the level of patient satisfaction with aesthetic medicine services rendered in Poland. Additionally, the study assessed the role of clinics as significant determinants in the development of the aesthetic medicine market. It is noteworthy that this study is one of the few large-scale surveys conducted in Poland targeting a broad group of aesthetic medicine clients through direct questionnaire interviews, carried out shortly before the COVID-19 pandemic.

As mentioned earlier, the Net Promoter Score (NPS) methodology was employed for this assessment. In accordance with the NPS procedure, clients of aesthetic medicine clinics were first asked about the likelihood of their recommending the treatments to their friends. Subsequently, respondents were asked about their likelihood of recommending the specific clinic to potential clients. Recommendations were rated on a 0–10 scale, reflecting the level of likelihood. The results for the first issue, analyzed across the general population and various age groups, are presented in Table 5. Gender analysis was excluded due to the relatively small representation of male respondents (12% of the total).

The results in Table 5 show a clear dominance of the Promoters group across all age categories, with values exceeding 70% in every subgroup. This indicates a high likelihood of respondents recommending aesthetic medicine treatments (scored 9 or 10). Conversely, the proportion of Detractors is remarkably low, never exceeding 7%, except for the 51–60 age group, where it slightly increased to 11.8%.

The overall NPS score for the entire population reached 71.4%, reflecting a very positive evaluation and high satisfaction with aesthetic medicine services in Poland. The NPS score was even higher among respondents aged 41–50, exceeding 75%. These findings suggest a consistently high level of consumer satisfaction with aesthetic medicine services, regardless of the patients’ age. Additionally, the results indicate a promising outlook for the growth of aesthetic medicine services in Poland in the coming years.

The study also explored the likelihood of respondents recommending the specific aesthetic medicine clinics they had utilized. These results, presented in Table 6, closely align with the general recommendations for aesthetic medicine treatments. The overall NPS score for clinics was 77.1%, reflecting a high probability of recommendation. This value remained consistently high across all age groups, with a slightly lower score observed in the 51+ age group.

These findings reinforce the conclusion that both treatments and specific clinics offering aesthetic medicine services in Poland are highly regarded by consumers, underscoring the importance of maintaining high service quality and customer satisfaction to drive market growth.

5. Conclusions

The theoretical and empirical literature offers numerous studies on patient satisfaction with medical services, but they mainly focus on aspects related to the patient’s attitude, nurses, emergency room service, or general healthcare staff. Many studies specifically explore plastic surgery services and factors determining patient satisfaction with this type of services, such as clear explanations of problems/conditions, addressing patient questions/worries, involvement in decision-making, information about medications, follow-up care instructions, the use of clear language, the time clinicians spend with the patient, etc. (Clapham et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2018). Aesthetic medicine, being a much younger field of study compared to plastic surgery, has had relatively few studies assessing patient satisfaction.

In Poland, our own study was one of the first to examine patient satisfaction with services offered by aesthetic medicine clinics (Ankiel & Kuczyńska, 2018). However, given the very similar nature of the outcomes achieved by aesthetic medicine and plastic surgery procedures – such as appearance enhancement and the correction of natural defects – based on our findings, it can be assumed that the sets of determinants of patient satisfaction are largely similar across both fields. On the other hand, satisfaction surveys for services provided in offices and clinics must take into account specific factors such as location, decor, equipment quality, professionalism of medical staff, and the level of patient care and service.

More broadly, the present findings support the conclusion that the aesthetic medicine market in Poland is poised for strong growth, both in terms of the number of procedures performed and the overall value of the services provided. The high level of patient recommendations reflects the exceptional quality of aesthetic medicine services available in Poland: the satisfaction levels reported by respondents differ significantly from those observed in other medical services in the country. This is particularly notable given that the overall evaluation of healthcare services in Poland is often considered relatively low compared to other European Union countries.

The present study has a number of practical implications. First of all, it shows that a professional approach to patient care and the delivery of high-quality treatments and accompanying processes are essential for achieving patient satisfaction. In Poland, aesthetic medicine is characterized by high satisfaction ratings, whereas other types of medical services are generally evaluated as being of low satisfaction and poor quality. We believe that this derives from the fact that these services are predominantly provided by private offices and aesthetic medicine clinics. From the marketing point of view, therefore, it is important to build positive relationships with patients before, during, and after each procedure, which results in very positive WOM (word of mouth), necessary for increasing the demand for this type of service. Moreover, in the private sector, implementing innovative technologies as part of various types of treatments is typically a short and simple process (usually with a single decision-maker). Offering cutting-edge treatments is another dimension important for building a positive image and reputation for an office or clinic.

Despite its potential for growth, however, the aesthetic medicine market in Poland faces some limitations. One significant challenge is the affordability of services; many innovative treatments represent a substantial financial burden for patients, limiting access. Moreover, intense market competition could lead to reduced prices for aesthetic medicine services in the future.

The market’s development will also be influenced by factors such as increasing household wealth and advancements in medical technology. However, the lack of public education on aesthetic medicine, particularly in rural areas, and the absence of reimbursement for such services from the state healthcare system are additional barriers.

Further research by the authors of the present study will focus on examining the determinants of consumer satisfaction in aesthetic medicine services in international markets, with a particular emphasis on Western Europe, Turkey, the United States, and Brazil.

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In the process of making decisions about purchasing specific food products, consumers pay attention to various factors characterizing the food itself, as well as the terms of sale, labelling, price (Kumar & Kapoor, 2017), taste, brand, product appearance or food quality (Gelici-Zeko et al., 2013; Eldesouky & Mesías, 2014). In developed countries, the influence of advertising campaigns on the choice of food products is also noted (Prowse et al., 2020). Research shows that consumers indicate food packaging as one of the primary sources of information about food (Gutkowska & Ozimek, 2005; Alibabić et al., 2011), and this information function of packaging is now becoming more and more critical for consumers.

The labelling of products placed on the market, including food, must include mandatory information, the presence of which on the packaging results from applicable legal provisions. In the EU countries, Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002 generally regulates issues related to the labelling, advertising and presentation of food. As emphasized in this legal act, the advertising and presentation of food and feed products, taking into account their appearance, shape, and packaging, as well as the arrangement and place of display and the information provided about them, may not provide consumers with incorrect information. In this respect, detailed rules for food labelling are set out in Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011, which defines food information as “information about a food made available to the final consumer using a label, other accompanying materials or other means, including modern technological tools or oral communication’ (p. 3). Food labelling, in turn, includes “any inscriptions, particulars, trademarks, brand names, illustrations or symbols relating to a food and affixed to any packaging, document, leaflet, label, band or ring accompanying such food or relating to it’ (Regulation…, 2011, p. 4). Also important are the requirements regarding hygienic conditions related to the sale of products, which are regulated in particular by EU regulations such as: Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs; and Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin.

A product’s price should also be clearly displayed at the point of sale. This issue is regulated in Poland by the Act of May 9, 2014 on information on prices of goods and services (Act…, 2014), which implements Directive 98/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of February 16, 1998, on consumer protection by displaying the prices of products offered to consumers, together with the implementing act, i.e. the Regulation of the Minister of Development and Technology of December 19, 2022, on the visibility of prices of goods and services (Regulation…, 2022).

The modern consumer is becoming more and more open to trying different product categories at regional, national, European, and global levels (Angowski & Jarosz-Angowska, 2020). Research shows that food shopping habits are influenced, among other factors, by age, gender, place of residence, and education level (Aday & Yener, 2014; Grande Covián et al., 2014; de Lourdes Samaniego-Vaesken et al., 2018; Bassola et al., 2020; Lima et al., 2021). Moreover, the young generation, representing the future of society, seems to have a completely different approach and different ideas than the older generation (Kanchanapibul et al., 2014).

In this study, we resolved to concentrate on young buyers, who constitute an essential group for the development of Poland’s economy – given that people between 18 and 34 years of age constitute over 18% of the population (Statistics Poland, 2021). However, the definitions of ‘young consumers’ used in previous research vary. For example, Solomon (2017) identifies young consumers as individuals up to 24 years old, whereas other publications define them as individuals up to 35 years old, such as Bakewell & Mitchell (2003), Olejniczuk-Merta (2008), Nyrhinen et al. (2024). In his research, Arnett (2000) focused on young consumers aged 18–25. He emphasized that this period of life, which he termed ‘emerging adulthood,’ is neither adolescence nor early adulthood and differs both theoretically and empirically. This stage is characterized by intense identity exploration and experimentation with various social roles, translating into specific consumer behaviors. Following Arnett’s (2000) research, we focused on the 18–25 age group of young consumers.

The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of selected factors on the purchase of food by young consumers, using the CAWI method (computer-assisted Internet interview technique). The survey was created in Google Forms, an online survey collection tool.

2. Materials and method

The survey was conducted in October-November 2020, using purposive sampling. Participants were specifically selected based on two criteria: age (18–25 years) and their status as students. It was administered online via a publicly accessible Google Forms questionnaire, which included both the research questions and additional questions regarding the respondents’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics.

The study used a 5-point Likert scale to gauge the extent to which a given respondent pays attention to particular selected factors when purchasing food (a score of 1 indicating no attention to this factor at all, a score of 5 indicating high attention to this factor). We treat the ordinal scales as quasi-quantitative scales for analytical purposes, calculating means and standard deviations (SD) via descriptive analysis. The reliability of the scales was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which was 0.829 – indicating satisfactory reliability (as indicated by values above 0.7)

To investigate the complexity of factors determining consumers’ food choices, we examined the validity of selected 17 elements related to food product characteristics and conditions of food sales. The following factors were analysed: the food storage method at the store, the storage conditions, appropriate hygienic conditions at the point of sale, food price, the appearance, taste and smell of the product, the condition of the product packaging, and general information appearing on the food product packaging – country of origin, energy/nutritional value of the food product, product weight/volume, product composition, nutrient content (e.g. proteins, carbohydrates), shelf life/date of minimum durability, the ecological origin of the product, manufacturer, and brand.

A 5-point scale was likewise used in subsequent questions in the questionnaire: a score of 1 meant that the respondent “completely disagrees’ with a given statement, 2 – “generally disagrees’; 3 – “neither agrees nor disagrees’, 4 – “generally agrees’, and a score of 5 – “completely agrees’.

Factor and cluster analyses, common in consumer research, were applied to analyse the resulting data. First, factor analysis was used to identify the relationship between the factors, applying the varimax rotation method. The number of factors was determined based on the following criteria: a scree plot test, components with an eigenvalue of 1, and the interpretability of the factors. Factors with loadings above 0.40 were considered. Data factorability was confirmed with the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) (with a cut-off value of 0.60) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p ≤ 0.05).

In the second step of analysis, non-hierarchical clustering was performed to obtain segments of respondents, using the k-means clustering method. Clusters are formed by evaluating dissimilarities and similarities of intrinsic characteristics between different cases. We calculated the correlation ratio (CR) for each variable applied in our cluster analysis and conducted cross-tabulation with Chi2-statistics to profile the clusters. SPSS for Windows statistical software (9.0 version) was used for statistical analysis.

The questionnaire also included questions about the respondents’ demographic characteristics, such as gender, labour market status, number of people in the household, self-assessment of the household’s financial status, and place of residence. These detailed characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1.

The study involved 702 student participants, all between 18 and 25 years old, 63.4% women and 36.6% men. Most often, respondents lived in households of 4 or 3 people (31.5% and 21.5%, respectively). The respondents were least likely to declare that they lived in single-person households and those with 6 or more people (7.7% and 8.4%, respectively). Two-fifths of respondents (42.9%) were gainfully employed, 57.1% were not employed. At the same time, almost half of the respondents (48.1%) described the financial situation of their household as good, while one-third (34.9%) described it as average. The respondents represented places of residence of various sizes, most often declaring that they lived in a city with a population of over 100,000 inhabitants (36.9%) and rural areas (35.5%).

3. Results

The most respondents declared that when shopping for food, they pay attention primarily to the price (mean score 4.43) and the use-by date / date of minimum durability (mean 4.42). Factors such as the ‘taste and aroma’ of a food product (mean 4.37), ‘condition of packaging’ (mean 4.35), ‘appearance’ (4.34), and ‘hygienic conditions’ (4.24) also achieved an average above four (Table 2).

The factor ‘information on the packaging’ obtained a mean score of 3.86. The respondents least often indicated such factors as ‘organic origin’ (2.86) and ‘country of origin’ (2.76) (Table 2).

3.1. Factors influencing food choice

Exploratory factor analysis was performed to examine the relationship between the observed variables. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0.808. The result indicated that the choice of analysis and the number of factors were correct. The result of Bartlett’s test of sphericity x2 = 3985.855, p ≤ 0.01, indicated that correlations between items were high enough to perform the analysis.

EFA was conducted using maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation (Table 3), extracting four factors. It was assumed that the components of the coefficient are those variables that, after rounding, obtain absolute values equal to 0.4 or greater. All factors were identified with an eigenvalue higher than the Kaiser criterion 1. The first factor’s eigenvalue is 4.665, which explains 27.44% of the variance. The second factor’s eigenvalue equals 2.343, which explains 13.78% of the variance. The third factor’s eigenvalue equals 1.630, which explains 9.59% of the variance. The fourth factor`s eigenvalue equals 1.214, which explains 7.14% of the variance. All four factors taken together explained 57.95% of the total variance.

The first factor, summarizing five variables, was positively correlated with the tendency of respondents to read food labels and pay attention to product composition, hence it was named ‘Information’. The second factor, summarizing four variables, was positively related to variables expressing interest in the conditions associated with storing food at the point of sale and paying attention to the use-by date/date of minimum durability on the food product packaging. For this reason, this factor was labelled ‘Hygiene and food safety’. The third factor explains four variables and was named ‘Product appearance and price’. Lastly, the fourth factor summarizes four variables, relating to respondents’ interest in the purchased food brand, its origin, and information about organic production, hence it was named ‘Origin’ (Table 3).

3.2. The influence of food choice factors on the respondents’ profile

For the whole surveyed population, 5 clusters were identified, each representing from 5.98% to 30.77% of the surveyed population (Table 4). Cluster 2 represents 27.92% of all respondents. In Cluster 2, the highest average value was obtained for 15 of the 17 variables. Only in the case of three factors, ‘price’, ‘appearance’, and ‘energy value’, were higher average values recorded in other clusters (‘price’ in Cluster 5; ‘appearance’ in Cluster 3; ‘energy value’ in Cluster 4). Cluster 1 had the lowest mean values for 14 factors out of 17. The reported averages range from 1.33 ‘storage conditions’ to 2.25 ‘nutrient content’. The largest spreads in average values were recorded for Cluster 5, representing 13.82% of all respondents. They ranged from 1.56 for the variable ‘energy value’ to 4.55 for the value ‘price’. Cluster 3 represents 30.77% of the surveyed population, and Cluster 4 represents 21.52%. In Cluster 3, the highest average value (4.54) was recorded for the factor ‘use-by date/date of minimum durability’. In turn, the lowest average value (2.29) was exhibited by the factor ‘nutrient content’. In Cluster 4, the lowest average was recorded for the factors ‘manufacturer’ and ‘organic origin’ (2.23) (Table 4).

Analysis of the socio-demographic characteristics showed that Cluster 1 consists most predominantly of females and unemployed people. Of all the clusters, the percentage of unemployed people was the highest in this cluster (Table 5).

None of the respondents in Cluster 1 described their financial situation as ‘very good’, and 16.7% stated that their financial situation was ‘bad’. The highest percentages of men and employed individuals are found in Cluster 4; the percentage of respondents living in the largest cities was also the highest in this cluster. The respondents in Cluster 3 most often declared that they lived in rural areas and had a very good financial situation. Cluster 2 includes mainly respondents living in households of 5 or more people. Compared to other clusters, we note the highest percentage of respondents declaring a very bad financial situation in this cluster. Cluster 5 consists predominantly of women, respondents with good financial situations and those living in four-person households (Table 5).

4. Discussion

Food selection is a complex process affecting food production systems and consumer nutrient intake, as it determines what foods consumers buy and eat (Furst et al., 1996). As such, understanding what motivates basic food choices is essential from the perspective of food development and marketing efforts. In our study, factors such as packaging information, hygiene, and food safety emerged as significant determinants of food purchasing decisions among young Polish consumers, giving some insight into what drives their food choices.

Su et al.’s (2019) study of Gen Z consumers in the United States found them to be much more knowledgeable about sustainable lifestyles than previous generations, typically prioritising their health when making food choices. Our findings similarly suggest that young Polish consumers are increasingly attentive to health-related aspects like hygiene and the nutritional content displayed on packaging, indicating a shift towards health consciousness in their purchasing behaviour. This moreover parallels Kumar & Kapoor’s (2017) findings that young consumers in India place considerable importance on food labels, mirroring the behaviour observed in our study where information on packaging plays a crucial role.

On the other hand, Allman-Farinelli et al. (2016) found that young people prefer and overconsume unhealthy foods because they are tastier than their healthier alternatives. The present study, on the contrary, suggests a more balanced consideration involving both health and sensory attributes like taste and appearance. This could indicate a cultural variation or an evolving trend among younger demographics who are seeking to balance taste with health considerations.

Moreover, such differences in the findings reported by studies on food choice priorities may reflect gender-related differences or broader regional consumer behaviour trends. Alibabić et al. (2011), for instance, found that product packaging, manufacturer, and product quality were the main determinants for Bosnian male consumers when deciding whether to buy food. Studies such as those by Lawlor et al. (2001) and Wardle & Griffith (2001) suggest that men may prioritize taste and convenience – a trend not strongly evidenced in our study’s young Polish demographic, which displayed a more balanced set of priorities encompassing price, hygiene, and information.

The place where consumers live also has an impact on their food choices. This factor may also be linked to economic status and affect food availability (Samaniego-Vaesken et al., 2018; Grande Covián et al., 2014). On the other hand, other studies show that a globalised market, which includes the distribution of a wide range of staple foods, regardless of their origin, reduces the gap in food purchases and consumption between urban and rural areas (Martín et al., 2014; Naska et al., 2006).

In our study, the origin of products was found to be the least important factor in food choices for young Polish consumers. This contrasts with findings from Turčínková and Kalábová (2011), who concluded that the origin of food plays a vital role in Czech consumers’ purchasing decisions. They found a moderately strong relationship between the age and education of respondents and their tendency to choose local food. Similarly, Brown (2003) noted that the attitude towards local food depends on the origin of the respondents. Additionally, Bimbo et al. (2021) showed that age, education, and professional status positively correlate with high frequency of local food purchases. These differences, again, may reflect varying cultural values or economic conditions that influence consumer priorities in different regions.

5. Conclusions

This study successfully identified several critical determinants influencing food choices among young Polish consumers, achieving the article’s aims as demonstrated by the results. The analyses revealed that consumer choices are influenced by a blend of economic, informational, and aesthetic factors including information on the packaging of food products, hygiene and food safety, the appearance of the product, and its price. Notably, the lessened importance of food origin and the high priority given to product appearance and hygiene suggest a unique profile of young Polish consumers that may differ from global trends. Significant differences were also observed based on gender and place of residence among the clusters identified in the study, emphasizing the complexity of decision-making processes in food purchases.

The selection of a sample consisting only of people aged 18–25 carries limitations regarding representativeness and generalization of research results to a broader population. People aged 18–25 are at a stage of life often related to higher education, the beginning of their professional career, greater mobility, and life changes. They usually have limited professional and financial experience, which may influence their economic decisions and attitudes. People of this age are also often heavy social media and technology users, which may also influence their behaviour. To obtain more universal conclusions, future studies should consider a broader demographic range, including different age groups, to better reflect society’s diversity.

Additionally, food marketers and producers should consider these preferences when designing and marketing their products to the young Polish market, potentially adjusting marketing strategies to emphasize the factors of highest consumer sensitivity, such as packaging information and hygienic conditions.

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The rise in counterfeit goods can be attributed to the expansion of global trade, the emergence of new markets, rapid technological development, and a rise in valuable products being counterfeited (Borekçi, 2013).

The consequences of counterfeiting extend beyond causing harm to manufacturers of genuine products and brands, to affect hundreds of thousands of jobs (Hanzaee & Taghip, 2012). At the macroeconomic level, counterfeiting even creates economic deficits in many countries, leading to job losses, and encouraging the development of an underground economy that escapes taxation, and mobilises significant resources to fight against this scourge at the national level, notably through costly communication campaigns (Viot et al., 2006). Counterfeiting is a shortfall for companies whose brands are subject to counterfeiting. Opinions are sometimes divided as to the damage because people who buy a fake brand would not have the means to afford the original brand. Some counterfeits represent a danger to the health and safety of the people who buy them because they do not meet the safety standards imposed on regular imports (Viot et al., 2006).

Previous research studies have explored various factors that contribute to the purchase of counterfeit products. Penz and Stöttinger (2006), for instance, argue that while most of the researches in the literature have emphasised on investigating the reasons why manufacturers committed counterfeiting (the supply side of counterfeiting), few studies have examined the reasons why consumers buy pirated and original brands (the demand side of counterfeiting) (Triandewi & Tjiptono, 2013). A qualitative study conducted in the UK by Hoe et al. (2003), has shown that some consumers buy counterfeit products as a substitutes for genuine ones to own the original brand, which would help them to establish their own identities and social standing (Hmidi, 2016). Besides, Yoo and Lee Hee (2012) showed that prior purchases positively impact future purchases (Santi, 2012). Eisend and Schuchert-Guler (2006) have shown that the most common reason for buying them is essentially relative to their affordable prices. Indeed, researchers identified non-price factors that influence the demand for counterfeit brands and products, including the characteristics of counterfeit products in terms of exclusivity, prestige, and quality, as well as the advantages of perceived benefits and self-identity. In the same vein, Cordell et al. (1996) identified the psychographic
characteristics of individuals; Solomon and O’Brien (1991) identified the demographic variables; Stone and Gronhaug (1993) identified social visibility; and Wang et al. (2005) identified two cost-benefit factors and the risks of prosecution (Ben Othman, 2013).

Our research work aims to study the factors shaping the attitude towards counterfeit products and their impact on the purchase intention to buy such items. Therefore, we will try to propose a model which could help understand the attitudes towards counterfeit product, based on previous research contributions.

Literature Review

Counterfeit purchasing decision-making is largely influenced by attitudes, regardless of product category (Chang, 1998; Hoon Ang et al., 2001; Wee et al., 1995). Indeed, the more the attitude towards counterfeiting is favourable, the more the consumer is led to buy a counterfeit brand and vice versa (Phau & Teah, 2009). Le Roux et al. (2007) and Wee et al. (1995) also tested models including attitude variables towards counterfeit products and in particular the general attitude towards counterfeiting. Before examining attitudes towards counterfeit consumption in more detail, it is necessary to conduct a literature review to situate the notion of attitude among prevalent studies in the literature.

The cognitive component is comprised of thoughts, beliefs, or ideas about the attitude object. Beliefs are thereby understood to be associations or relationships that people establish between the attitude object and various attributes (Kroenung & Eckhardt, 2011).

The affective component consists of emotions, feelings, or moods that people experience, when they are confronted with a certain attitude object. On a measurement level, these responses can range from extremely positive to extremely negative (Albarracín et al., 2005). The study of this component provides a better understanding of the consumer purchase process. It is because of this component that, depending on the constraints that arise, a consumer decides to choose one product over another (Festinger, 1957).

The conative component (behavioural) is a verbal or manifest (nonverbal) behavioural tendency by an individual and consists of observable actions or responses that are the result of an attitude object. It involves the person’s response (favourable/unfavourable) to do something about the attitude object. Responses to attitudes are more or less consistent (Vishal, 2014).

Moreover, Wilcox et al. (2009) defined counterfeits as “genuine fakes” that are copies of original products having high brand value in the market and are made to deceive consumers in the market. Similarly, Wee et al. (1995) pinpoint that counterfeiting is the production of copies that are identically packaged, including trademarks and labelling, copied so as to seem to a consumer the genuine article. From a consumer perspective, we can categorize counterfeiting in two ways: deceptive and non-deceptive counterfeiting. This classification can be done according to the level of awareness of the consumers because in deceptive counterfeiting, consumers are not aware of the fact that the products they are purchasing are counterfeits. They are rather victims in a way. However, in some situations, consumers are fully aware that the product they are buying is counterfeit. In these cases, counterfeiting is defined as non-deceptive (Borekçi, 2013).

Usually regarded as a serious economic, social, and political problem, counterfeiting has both positive and negative effects attached to it. Counterfeits pose a significant risk to consumers. Unsafe fake goods can lead to injuries, deaths, and illnesses. In cases where fake goods cause no physical harm, consumers are harmed financially when they are hoodwinked into spending their hard-earned cash on low-quality counterfeit. Moreover, since businesses must raise their prices to recoup losses from counterfeiting, the public is “forced to pay higher prices for brand-name products because of counterfeiters” (Lewis, 2009). Additionally, legitimate businesses are threatened by counterfeiters who become their competitors, a thing which makes these businesses lose sales and market share (Lewis, 2009). While most studies emphasize on the losses caused by counterfeiting, there are very few studies which highlight the potential benefits it can have. Counterfeiting might save consumer money and allow him/her to buy other goods. It can also raise sales of legitimate products by allowing consumers to test products through their counterfeit versions (Counterfeiting, 2018).

Determinant of attitude towards counterfeiting

Our research work integrates a conceptual model on determinants that can influence attitude towards counterfeiting, that is, insensitivity to counterfeiting, brand attachment, economic aspect, and perceived risk. We also explore how consumer attitudes influence their intention to purchase counterfeit items.

Insensitivity to counterfeiting

Counterfeit insensitivity as coined by Kapferer and Laurent (1992), refers to the concept of ‘brand sensitivity’, as a psychological construct that influences the decision-making process of the consumer, just before the act of purchase. This psychological variable takes into account the consumer’s consideration of counterfeit presence or absence while buying a product. Consequently, we will extent this notion by hypothesizing that:

H1: Insensitivity to counterfeiting influences the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting.

Attachment to the brand

Based on research addressing brand loyalty, the attachment approach proposed by Lacoeuilhe (2000) refers to research work on brand equity and commitment in the field of organisational behaviours. According to this approach, attachment to the brand is defined based on the transfer of the constituent elements of attachment to the object to that of the brand. Thus, this integrative approach to brand loyalty is based on the notion of brand equity so as to facilitate movement from attachment to the object to attachment to the brand (Lacoeuilhe & Belaid, 2007). Indeed, this study considers attachment to the brand as an explanatory variable directly influencing the attitude towards counterfeiting. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

H2: Attachment to the brand influences the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting.

Economic aspect

The price difference between the original and the counterfeit product is presented as a crucial variable to predict the attitude and the intention to buy counterfeit products. However, the impact of price can vary from positively encouraging purchases (low price of counterfeits, which encourages purchase) to negatively deter them (a low price can be associated to low quality in the mind of the consumer). A study conducted by Prendergast et al. (2002), showed how price can be the overriding criterion, revealing that the higher the original product’s price, the more consumers are willing to buy counterfeit items (Harvey & Walls, 2003). This reaction stems from the consumers ‘tendency to always link quality to price. Indeed, the more the consumer tends to infer a level of quality from the price, the more he will tend to equate counterfeits-generally sold at a low price-with mediocre quality products (Viot et al., 2014). While price may intuitively appear as a determining variable of the propensity to buy counterfeit products and of the attitude towards counterfeiting, researchers have somewhat lost interest in this variable. Therefore, our research work integrates the economic aspect as a determinant influencing the attitude towards counterfeiting. Starting from this assumption, it is hypothesized that:

H3: Economic aspect affects the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting

Perceived risk

Volle (1995) defined risk as “the possibility of incurring losses when purchasing or consuming a product (good or service)”. In contrast, Solomon and O’Brien (1991) show that consumer-perceived risk is a decision-making characteristic measuring the extent to which there is uncertainty regarding potentially significant and/or disappointing outcomes that may arise from a decision. Perceived risk can be presented in different facets. The perceived risk variable is considered in our research work as a determinant of attitude towards counterfeiting. This assumption leads to the following hypothesis:

H4: Perceived risk influences the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting.

Attitude towards counterfeiting

Fishbein and Azjen (1975) define the concept of attitude as “a learned predisposition to react favourably or unfavourably to an object or a class of objects”. An attitude can be defined also as “a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object” (Schiffman et al., 2010, p. 246). In the context of counterfeiting, Hoon Ang et al. (2001), state that consumers’ attitude towards counterfeiting is a significant determinant of their intention to buy counterfeit products. Indeed, in this study, the attitude towards counterfeiting will be either positive or negative towards the purchase intention of purchasing counterfeit products. We will test empirically the possible causal link between the attitude of consumers and the purchase intention of counterfeit products. Consumers with a more positive attitude towards counterfeiting are more likely to be inclined to use counterfeit products. Starting from this assumption, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H5: Attitude towards counterfeiting influences purchase intention.

Purchase intention

According to the theory of reasoned action of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), attitudes influence behaviour through behavioural intentions. This relationship between attitude and intention has been discussed in various marketing and consumer behaviour studies. We will try to transpose this reasoning in order to study the role of the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting in determining consumer’s purchase intention of counterfeit products. Consistent with Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) extended attitude model, behavioural intention (in this case, purchase intention of counterfeits) is more related to attitude towards that behaviour, i.e., attitude towards the purchasing counterfeits than to the attitude towards the object itself (the attitude towards the counterfeit). Bergeron (2004), for his part, defines purchase intentions as “the degree of conviction perceived by a consumer to buy (or repurchase) a particular product or service or to do (or redo) business with a particular organization”. We are interested in purchase intentions because they involve the individual and are more predictive of the individual’s future behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).

Drawing from the literature review, and after having defined the different concepts related to our research questioning, we propose a measurement model that can explain the consumer’s attitude towards counterfeit products and the factors that influence this attitude in Figure 1 below.

Research Method

The scales of measurement and questionnaire of the study consumers’ attitudes towards counterfeit cosmetics have been conceptualised around 6 variables, 13 constructed (dimensions), and 32 indicators (items) that are operationally defined as follows:

• Attitude towards counterfeiting with four dimensions refers to users of traditionally counterfeit products; additionally, the enthusiasm of consumers for brands of certain categories of products has the result that these become the preferred targets of counterfeiting (Viot et al., 2006).
• Insensitivity to counterfeiting with two dimensions refers to consumer choices between one brand and another, and it can use
  different elements of information to make its decision: such as the colour, appearance, and image of the brand (Mourad, 2014).
• Intention to purchase with three indicators refers to the likelihood that a person uses the same items for a future consumer opportunity (Cronin et al., 2000).
• Attachment to the brand with four indicators refers to work on brand equity and engagement in the field of organisational behaviour
  (Lacoeuilhe, 2000).
• Perceived risk with three dimensions refers to regulations and safety standards for the people who use them and for the environment (Stone & Gronhung, 1993).
• Economic aspect with two dimensions refers to counterfeit cosmetics that are sold at significantly lower prices than the originals and prices that positively influence the likelihood of buying counterfeit cosmetics (Viot et al., 2006).

In order to estimate our model and to verify the hypotheses of this research work, we adopted the structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis with partial least squares (PLS) path modelling. Its ability to model composites and factors makes it a formidable statistical tool for new technology research (Henseler et al., 2016). We can describe the counterfeit attitude and purchase intent as exogenous constructs that are equivalent to latent independent variables. These latent variables are not measurable or directly observable but can be represented through four observed or measured variables. For this, we developed the questionnaire and the selection of items according to study variables.

For our study, the target population consists of young women consumers of cosmetics products of all sociodemographic categories from 18 years to 39 years of age. In our case, we opted for non probability sampling methods. A sample of 250 women was selected by the convenience method for lack of budget. This sample size is amply sufficient since we are using variance-based SEM because the minimum size is determined by 10 times the largest number of formative indicators (04 × 10 = 40) used to measure a single construct (Hair et al., 2013).

The questionnaire was administered face-to-face and online. The survey link was posted on the social network ‘Facebook’ and was also e-mailed to a few friends. Additionally, we shared our questionnaire on pages and groups dedicated to women. We aimed to select the responds from locations closer to our target and to cover various Algerian cities including Tlemcen, Algiers, Ain Temouchent, and Oran. Data were collected from 250 consumers, and after eliminating the invalid questionnaires, we had a return of 235 questionnaires (205 face-to-face and 30 online).

We used the SPHINX V5 software to perform descriptive data analysis. Additionally, SPSS V18 and Smart PLS V3 were used in order to determine the dimensions of attitude towards counterfeit cosmetics products.

Results

We present the results of the descriptive analysis, which was conducted by making use of the multiple-choice question format, and which considers the general characteristics of our sample, namely age, salary, and socio professional category. The results of the socio demographic characteristics of the sample revealed that, among the respondents, 58.7% were female students, 24.7% were employees, and 8.1% were in administrative roles. As for their age, 61.3% fell within the 18 years to 24 years; whereas 26% were between 25 years and 29 years old. As far as their income is concerned, 55.7% of the sample had no income, while 20.9% had an income less than 25,000 DA and 19.1% had an income between 26,000 DA and 45,000 DA. Table 1 below represents the sociodemographic characteristics.

Evaluation of the reliability and validity of the measurement model

In the initial model for PLS PM processing, each construct (latent variable) was related to its measurements by a reflective mode. At the beginning, we had 32 items, but after the deleting items with a value less than 0.7, only 29 items were selected.

In the following section, we will present the results of the measurement model (manifest variables – latent variables) and those of the structural model (latent variables between them). The measurement model concerns the reliability and validity tests of the links between the manifest variables and the latent variables. These tests encompass three aspects: the convergent validity, the reliability of the measurements, and the discriminant validity. A first analysis of the model made it possible to assess the convergent validity of the manifest variables by referring to the correlations between the latter and their respective constructs. As distinct from other empirical studies, we applied the strong convergence criteria proposed by Fornell and Lacker (1981). The no-convergent variables are those whose correlation coefficients are lower than 0.7 in absolute value. After removing all the measurement variables that did not meet the convergence conditions, we have re-estimated all measurement and structural relationships. The set of constructs were represented at least by two measures whose convergence were verified. Thus, the attachment (Att) results were represented by manifest variables ‘Att1’, ‘Att2’, ‘Att3’, and ‘Att4’. Differentiation (Diff) was represented by two measures: ‘Diff1’ and ‘Diff2’. The consideration of psychological risk (RisP) was measured using three variables: ‘RisP1’, ‘RisP2’, and ‘RisP3’ (more details about questionnaire items are provided in Appendix).

Reliability provides information on the average of the variance extracted (AVE) by the construct with respect to measurement errors. Two tests were employed: the AVE higher than 50% and the composite reliability ‘CR’ greater than 0.7. The results of these two tests are shown in Table 2 which indicate that our latent variables met these criteria confirming the reliability of our measurements.

This measure ensures that the manifest variables are more related to their constructs than to other latent variables. In empirical studies, the comparison is made between the square root of the AVE of the construct in question and the correlations of the latter with the other constructs.

The principle remains the same with regard to the comparison of the AVE with the square of the correlations. The set of discriminant validity measures is presented in Table 3. These results demonstrate the ‘independence’ of our latent variables from one another: the discriminant validity is thus verified.

Table 3 shows also good model fit. The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) below 0.06 and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) below 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Therefore, we conclude that our model accurately represented the data.

The R2 values for the two latent variables are 0.201 and 0.002, respectively. The regression coefficients are indicated on the links (arrows) between the exogenous and endogenous latent variables. Thus, a positive effect is recorded for the construct Economic Aspect on the attitude towards counterfeiting with the coefficient of 0.257; on the other hand, a negative effect is recorded for the built-insensitivity to counterfeiting and perceived risk, with coefficients of –0.232 and –0.148, respectively.

Wetzels et al. (2009) specified Goodness of Fit ‘GOF’ criteria to determine if GOF values are unadjusted when GOF is less than 0.1, small when GOF value is between 0.1 and 0.25, medium when GOF value is between 0.25 and 0.36, and large when the GOF is greater than 0.36; for this purpose, we consider it a valid global PLS model. Thus, the formula for calculating GOF is as follows: GOF = √(R² × AVE).

Following the given criteria and the value of the calculated GOF of our model, which is GOF = 0.234, we can conclude that the adjustment quality of the model is small, and is thus enough to be considered as an indication of the overall validity of the PLS model.

The results of the hypothesis tests from the field survey indicate that, subsequent to the application of the Boostrap method concerning
hypothesis H1 (which states that insensitivity to counterfeiting has a significant influence on the attitude towards counterfeiting), the Student’s test is equal to 3.235 > 2, and H1 is accordingly validated. The hypothesis H2 indicates that attachment to the brand has a significant influence on the attitude towards counterfeiting; the Student’s test is equal to 1.035 < 2, and there is thus no influence; accordingly, hypothesis H2 is rejected. H3 represents the position that the economic aspect influences the favourable attitude towards counterfeiting; the Student’s test is equal to 4.097 > 2, and thus there is a significant influence, resultant to which the hypothesis stands validated. The results of the application of the Boostrap method revealed that the Student’s test of H4 is equal to 2.010 > 2; so, the perceived risk influences directly the attitude towards counterfeiting and accordingly this hypothesis is validated. H5 represents the position that the attitude towards counterfeiting has a significant influence on the intention to purchase, and the Student’s test is equal to 0.617 < 2; so, there is no influence, resultant to which hypothesis H5 is rejected. The results for the path coefficients for the hypothesis testing in this study, including standard error and T-values, are shown in Table 4 below.

Discussion of Results

Based on the results of our empirical study, we conclude that through descriptive analysis that the majority of female consumers in our sample fall within the age of 18–24 years and 25–29 years. The frequency of purchasing of cosmetic products among the Algerian consumer varies between monthly and weekly, which proves that Algerian consumers buy cosmetics products to improve self-image and well-being.

Hypothesis H1, which states that insensitivity to counterfeiting has a significant influence on the attitude towards counterfeiting, is thus confirmed. There is a relationship between insensitivity to counterfeiting and the attitude towards counterfeiting. When analysing the results, we found that the consumers are sensitive to counterfeit products, shaping their attitude. However, H2 hypotheses, which suggests that the brand attachment has no influence on the attitude towards counterfeiting is rejected, because it was noticed that whenever the consumer’s degree of attachment towards the original brand rises, their attitude will be negative towards counterfeit products, but this has no direct influence. As for both hypotheses H3 and H4, the economic aspect and the perceived risk have a direct influence on the attitude of the Algerian consumers with regard to counterfeiting, and subsequently these two variables are validated.

Concerning the last hypothesis H5, the attitude towards counterfeiting does not have a direct influence on the purchase intention, that is to say, the purchase decision that will be made by the consumer has no relation to this variable, whereas the consumer who purchases counterfeit products may be an individual harbouring a negative attitude towards counterfeit products, which would nevertheless not override her decision to make a purchase. Accordingly, this hypothesis is rejected.

Conclusion

This research work integrates a conceptual model investigating the determinants of counterfeiting behaviour and its impact on purchase intent, which encompasses insensitivity to counterfeiting, brand attachment, perceived risk (physical, psychosocial, social), and finally the economic aspect. This research allowed us to test the effect of consumer attitudes on the purchase intentions of counterfeit cosmetics. According to the results of our descriptive analysis, it has been shown that the majority of respondents are female students, and that their age varies between 18 years and 24 years. The results of this analysis indicate the high price of original products drive women to buy counterfeit cosmetics.

Therefore, we conclude that two hypotheses are rejected; the attachment to the brand does not influence the attitude towards counterfeiting, and the purchase intention is not influenced by the attitude towards counterfeiting. However, the remaining three hypotheses are confirmed, i.e., insensitivity to counterfeiting directly influences the attitude towards counterfeiting, and the economic aspect and the perceived risk have an influence on the attitude towards counterfeit products. Thus, our analysis showed convincing results and made it possible to meet the research objectives.

This approach allows us to propose relevant managerial implications particularly for product and brand management would effectively fight against counterfeiting. At the managerial level, the results of the present research are pertinent to the original brand companies. Indeed, the results obtained make it possible to ascertain the factors and motivations that push the consumers to buy the counterfeit products instead of the original ones so they will be more cautious in their strategic and operational choices. Our research explores the brakes and motivations of women consumers to purchase counterfeit products. For both governments and businesses, it is crucial to redirect consumers from the purchasing counterfeit products. Personal determinants such as social risk, physical risk, or doubts about the origin of the products seem to be effective strategies to fight against the purchase of counterfeits. At the theoretical level, the present work makes it possible to well define the concept of the counterfeit, consumers’ motivations, as well as factors influencing the attitude of the consumer towards the counterfeiting of such products. Additionally, our research is an attempt to contribute to a recent literature. We have proposed a model that illustrates the different determinants and the effect of consumer attitudes towards counterfeiting. These results can be used to fight against counterfeiting more effectively.

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Appendix

The greening of socio-economic life is one of the main challenges of the 21st century, whose aim is to counteract environmental degradation, progressive climate change and depletion of natural resources. The concern for the condition of the natural environment requires taking a new approach towards consumption and meeting consumer needs. Despite many initiatives related to the paradigm of sustainable development and the concept of sustainable consumption, the situation is still far from a general departure from mass consumption and consumerism. The EU authorities believe that the main reason for the negative impact of consumption on the environment and excessive use of resources is that the social costs of environmental and resource degradation are not fully reflected in the prices of goods and services (The European Environment, 2010). Generally, the greening of consumption is the desire of consumers to rationalise purchasing and consumption behaviour in order to reduce the negative effects of excessive exploitation of natural resources as well as post-consumption waste, which also has an impact on the condition of the environment. Changes in the perception of consumption may be observed among informed consumers. Namely, the prestige associated with buying and owning goods is losing its importance in favour of reducing consumption or choosing ecological products. It is possible to notice a change in consumer behaviour-i.e. moving from ‘homo oeconomicus’ to ‘homo ecologicus’. Such behaviour requires competence, activity and response to negative actions of enterprises. Companies operating internationally, nationally and locally should take into account changes in consumer attitudes and their value systems in their production, sales and marketing activities. The article aims to try to synthetically organise the views of other authors on the challenges of greening consumption, both for enterprises and consumers in the context of social responsibility. Competences play an important role in this process. The greening of consumption has not yet been widely propagated in societies, including also Polish society. One of the crucial elements of greening consumption is the purchase of ecological/organic food products. To learn about the behaviour of Poles towards the issue discussed in this article, the authors conducted a study on a representative sample of Poles (N = 1,000) during Nov. 15–27, 2021, using the Computer Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) technique (which is an online surveying technique that fits into the quantitative methodology of market and opinion research) and online panels as part of the omnibus study. Implementation of the adopted goal, as well as learning about the behaviour of Poles towards the greening of consumption, required the formulation of the following research questions:

• When buying food to meet household needs, do Poles buy organic products and with what frequency?
• How do consumers perceive organic/organic products?
• Does the behaviour of consumers differentiate socio-demographic characteristics?

The survey shows that only 7.1% of the respondents have never purchased ecological/organic food products. Among buyers, 21.8% do it rarely/sporadically, 40.1% occasionally/sometimes, 20.2% often/try to choose ecological products when shopping and 10.8% do it very often or always. Among the respondents, 55.3% declared that ecological/organic products are expensive but still worth the price due to the health benefits they bring. Noticing the advantages of these products, 63.7% of respondents would like to buy more of them. In view of the results obtained, it can be said that it is necessary to disseminate the main greening consumption ideas that are apparent from this study, and this can be done through education, building consumer competences or visualising the effects of the continuation of current consumption habits. The problem of protecting the natural environment, discussed in numerous documents issued by governments and international organisations and in scientific publications, cannot remain unnoticed. Greening consumption is a challenge for companies whose production should be rational in using non-renewable natural resources, reducing or eliminating toxic waste, using recyclable packaging and introducing ‘clean production’ principles aimed at obtaining consumer products using more cost-effective and healthier methods. It is also a challenge for consumers, who should replace perishable goods with products with a longer life cycle, consume goods and services more sparingly and cease to accept planned obsolescence of products or unethical behaviour of enterprises towards their employees (Rock, 2010).

The article contributes to the discussion and body of work on consumption and consumer behaviour, with a focus on greening.

The article is addressed to readers who are concerned with the problem of environmental degradation and social responsibility of businesses, and to consumers interested in adopting the trend of greening consumption and in choosing products for consumption that are both healthy and cause no or minimal damage to the environment; the present research would also be useful to academia, consumers and businesses, the latter among whom can use it to determine what kind of products are preferred by consumers who are focussed on greening consumption, and alter their capital composition, manufacturing and distribution mix accordingly

Greening of Consumption-Theoretical Background

The genesis of greening consumption dates back to the late 1960s. At that time, people were able to notice serious threats to the environment, and thus also to the functioning of economies and societies and to the quality of life. On May 26, 1969, the UN Secretary-General U Thant presented the famous report ‘The problems of the human environment’ to the international public. The report highlighted the worrying data indicating the destruction of the natural environment and its consequences, including lack of connection between the highly developed technology and environmental demands, destruction of arable lands, uncontrolled development of urban zones, reduction of free areas and open areas, the disappearance of many forms of animal and plant life, poisoning and pollution of the environment, and the need to protect such elements of the environment as soil, water and air. The report called on all countries to make wise decisions concerning the use of the Earth’s resources and to invest in ecosystem protection (United Nations, 1969).

The issue of saving the natural environment was also discussed by Meadows et al. (1972) in their publication entitled ‘Limits to Growth’ published by the Club of Rome in 1972. The authors analysed the future of humanity in the face of the increase of the number of inhabitants of the Earth and depleting natural resources and formulated the following conclusions:

1. If the present growth trends in world population, industrialisation, pollution, food production and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next 100 years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity.

2. It is possible to alter these growth trends and to establish a condition of ecological and economic stability that is sustainable far into the future. The state of global equilibrium could be designed so that the basic material needs of each person on the Earth are satisfied and each person has an equal opportunity to realise his individual human potential (Meadows et al., 1972).

The issue of greening is an element of sustainable development (Trocki & Wachowiak, 2019), which, according to Daly (2007), is reduced to three principles: the rate of consumption of renewable resources should not be faster than the rate at which they regenerate; the rate of consumption of non-renewable resources should not be faster than the rate at which their renewable substitutes can be introduced; the rate of the pollutants and waste emissions should not be faster than the rate at which the natural systems can absorb, recycle or dispose of them.

Half a century has passed since pioneers started to write about the threats to the environment. Thus, a legitimate question arises as to whether the societies and consumers have changed their behaviour and their lifestyle, and whether the entrepreneurs take more responsibility for the offered products and marketing activities, and for the natural environment and the consumers’ quality of life. Has the so-called ‘crawling apocalypse’, which Jonas, the author of the book The Imperative of Responsibility — In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age (Greisch, 1992) has commented on in his interview, receded? Are Jonas’s words: ‘the concern is this everyday use that we make of our power, which after all is the basis of our entire civilised existence with all conveniences and facilities (driving your own car, airplane flight, etc.), with all the incredible abundance of goods at our disposal’ still valid? As Jonas claims, ‘These are the things which do not deserve moral criticism: however, what we do is impossible to escape every day. It runs its own course. This means that the crawling apocalypse becomes more dangerous that the sudden and brutal apocalypse.’-has this crawling apocalypse come and passed, or is it yet to leave its most deleterious mark?

Two decades of the 21st century have passed, and the discussion on environmental protection and ecological consumption not only does not subside but actually intensifies. In this context, both consumers and businesses play their significant parts.

The pursuit of greening consumption to an ever-greater extent requires the cooperation of market participants, both consumers and entrepreneurs. Consumers must make the right choices when selecting the products available in the market, choosing those goods that are not harmful to the environment, and entrepreneurs play an important role in the process of shaping the shopping carts where there will be more and more ecological/organic products. These activities should be supported with the dissemination of relevant information about such products, which in turn affects the level of ecological awareness of consumers.

According to Mintel’s (2018, p. 4) forecasts, consumer awareness of the occurrence of plastics in the oceans, and their impact on the environment or human health, will increase in the near future. The effects of one-time use and subsequent disposal of plastic packaging are alarming. It is estimated that at least 150 million tons of plastic are in the seas, and 4.8–12.7 million tons of plastic is thrown into the ocean annually. According to one assessment, as far as weight is concerned, until 2050, there will be more plastic in the ocean than fish (European Parliament, 2018). That is why the Directive (EU) 2019/904 of the European Parliament and of the Council of June 5, 2019 on reducing the environmental impact of certain plastic products (Official Journal of the European Union, L 155/1, June 12, 2019) is so important. The basis of the changes is the pursuit of the circular economy, which aims to rationally use resources, e.g. through recycling and the use of reusable packaging. This directive must be introduced into the national regulations of particular EU countries by July 3, 2021; however, disposable plastic products covered by its individual provisions are listed in the annexe to the directive.

The greening of consumption may be reflected, among other things, in the growing ability to consume fashionable and high-quality products, using recycled items such as plastic clothing harvested from the ocean or the use of recycled packaging, as well as the use of reusable shopping bags. In the UK, 49% of British citizens would be interested in purchasing clothing or accessories made entirely or partly from recycled plastics, 72% would be interested in purchasing products with packaging made entirely/partly from recycled plastics, 73% are interested in a greater choice of beverages/food guaranteed to come from uncontaminated waters and 79% believe people should be encouraged to recycle plastics. In Poland, 66% of consumers say they prefer to drink water using recycled plastic bottles (Mintel, 2018, p. 6).

Pointing to consumer trends until 2030, based on the conducted research, Mintel (2019, p. 8) assumes that consumers will distance themselves from living at a fast pace and engaging in excessive consumption, moving towards slow and minimalist consumption, which focuses on sustainability, protection and functionality. Due to the role of food in the human hierarchy of needs, it is worth paying attention to three main trends related to the food and drink market. They include Elevated Convenience, Evergreen Consumption and Through the Ages. It appears that comfort is of particular importance in today’s busy world. Apart from convenience, consumers expect naturalness, a high level of nutritional value and personalisation possibilities, as well as an element of surprise and new experiences. The second trend-Evergreen Consumption-focuses on the idea of a circular economy, indicating opportunities for close cooperation focussed on sustainable development between suppliers, producers, commercial networks and consumers, as well as governmental and non-profit organisations. In turn, the third trend-Through the Ages-focuses on the role of food and drink in the process of supporting active and healthy ageing. At this point, it is worthwhile to mention freeganism, which, at present, may be seen as a form of a widespread boycott of excessive consumption. Many freegans, in addition to expressing socio-economic contestation, point to the importance of ecological problems by leading an environmentally friendly lifestyle (Wyrębska, 2014).

Changes in consumers’ lifestyles, purchasing and consumption behaviours aimed at greening consumption require appropriate competence. Young people, in particular, should expect brands to support their health and well-being, as well as their greater involvement in their education and development as socially responsible consumers.

Social Responsibility of Modern Consumers for the Greening of Consumption

As emphasised by Kiełczewski (2001), the fight against the crisis related to the natural environment is closely related to individual responsibility and ecological conscience. Changing the person’s approach towards nature should consist in shaping an ethical and empathic attitude towards the surrounding world, with the individual, daily decisions of each of us lying at its core.

The purchase of organic products by modern consumers can result from two motives. These can be altruistic reasons that relate to caring for the environment and social considerations or egoistic reasons associated with focussing on the consumers’ own safety-maintaining good health, condition and well-being by purchasing better quality products, organic products, especially food, clothing and footwear, cosmetics and cleaning supplies.

Recently, consumers have been urged to limit and minimise consumption, which can be treated as a way to counteract consumerism (Patrzałek, 2022). The social responsibility of consumers has many dimensions. The latter does not refer merely to responsible shopping. Social responsibility is also associated with our general behaviour, e.g. buying only the items that we actually need, not getting rid of these products after a short period of time or not being influenced by advertisements or commercials, discounts and other economic and non-economic incentives to buy newer and newer models or brands.

The aspect that draws our attention when observing consumer behaviour on the organic products market is the visible inconsistency, i.e. the discrepancy between positive attitudes towards ecological products and consumers’ purchasing practices. This tendency is indicated by numerous studies. Despite the willingness of consumers to pay higher prices (77%), only 13% of respondents make purchases of ecological products during the month preceding the survey (with the exception of Denmark and Sweden, where the share amounted to 40%) (Witek, 2018). This specific discrepancy between consumers’ attitudes and their behaviours on the organic market is reflected in Young et al. (2009)’s study, which indicated that 30% of consumers declare their concern about environmental issues, but this is not sufficiently reflected in market behaviour, as their actual organic food purchases reach the level of 5% of sales.

Such discrepancies, known as the ‘attitude-behaviour gap’, ‘green-gap’ or ‘words-deed gap’, had been widely discussed in literature providing various conceptualisations of the topic, but no consensus has been reached so far. Numerous groups of factors potentially causing the ‘gap’ were named, encompassing: (1) research biases, especially social desirability or sample selection biases; (2) external and internal inhibitors of green consumption, such as unreasonable prices in the first case and insufficient environmental knowledge in the second; and (3) consumers’ scepticism or cynicism. As proposed by Shaw, McMaster and Newholm (2016), referring to the theory of ‘Four phases of caring’ by Tronto (1993), the distinction between ‘desire’ and ‘act’ can be seen as the pivotal issue in ‘attitude-behaviour gap’ in the case of ethical consumption, which also includes pro-environmental consumption. An interesting approach to the problem of ‘green-gap’ was presented by Johnstone and Tan (2015), in which three main barriers to internalisation of green purchase behaviour by consumers were pointed out. The qualitative study covering seven focus groups revealed that the major obstacles from the perspective of the interviewed participants are: the perceived unattainability of green consumption activities due to limited time and money resources, or the belief that individual efforts are pointless if others do not co-operate. The so-called ‘green stigma’, which consists in rationalising the non-green consumer behaviour as an act of self-esteem and self-identity defence mechanism, appears to be of no less importance. We should also mention the ‘green reservations’ whereby consumers do not seem to perceive the greening of everyday activities as an urgent need or a social norm.

The green consumer is typically known as one who supports eco-friendly attitudes and/or who purchases green products over the standard alternatives (Boztepe, 2012). However, referring to Blustein’s argument (1991) that ‘there can be care without commitment, but there cannot be commitment without care’ and taking into consideration the ‘attitude-behaviour gap’ phenomena, it is worth considering whether the use of the conjunction ‘or’ in the definition proposed above might be justified. As recommended by Zbuchea (2013), more focus in further research should be placed on actual consumer behaviour.

The social responsibility of consumers must be expressed by opposing all those who damage the environment. This objection can be manifested through consumer boycotts, organising or participating in campaigns stigmatising actions that are harmful to the environmental, engaging in protests or ecological sabotage (Dąbrowska & Janoś-Kresło, 2022).

Through their choices and behaviours, consumers influence the shape of modern production, and they may be perceived as the driving force behind the development of the trend called the greening of consumption. As mentioned in the introduction of the article, the needs and tastes of buyers set the direction for market changes. Increasingly, consumers dictate to entrepreneurs what will be produced, not the other way around, and these consumers seem to take the social responsibility related to consumption very seriously, and one of the dimensions of such responsibility is ecological responsibility.

Celebrities can play a significant role in creating a sense of social responsibility in consumers, becoming a role model through shaping the tastes and behaviour of society (Furedi, 2010).

Corporate Social Responsibility for the Greening of Consumption

In the literature on the subject, there are many definitions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Zbuchea, A., & Pînzaru, F. (2017). The European Commission has defined CSR (Corportate Social Responsibility) as the responsibility of enterprises for their impact on society and, therefore, it should be company-led. Companies can become socially responsible by integrating social, environmental, ethical, consumer and human rights concerns into their business strategy and operations following the law (Porter, Kramer, 2006). According to the ISO (International Organization for Standardization: 26000:2010 standard, social responsibility is implemented as a course of transparent and ethical behaviours aimed at ensuring sustainable development, health and social well-being. It also takes into account the expectations of stakeholders in accordance with the applicable law and international standards of behaviour. It is also consistent with the organisation as well as implemented and practiced in its relations. CRS provides guidance for all types of organisations, regardless of their size or location (ISO, 2018). The concept of CSR emphasises the importance of relations with stakeholders and covers three aspects of corporate operations, i.e. its economic, social and ecological activities.

As illustrated by Zbuchea (2013), there is a positive relationship between CSR and consumer loyalty. On the one hand, consumers tend to reward companies that are socially and environmentally responsible, which is reflected in the level of trust, advocacy and purchasing behaviour. On the other hand, they boycott companies that act irresponsibly, not to mention the ones that engage in so-called ‘greenwashing’. In spite of such unfair practices being implemented by some companies, people generally put trust in CSR initiatives. Thus, environmentally driven strategies could be seen as an important part of building a competitive advantage and as a token of credibility.

According to Cherian and Jacob (2012) there have been a total of various circumstances that are influential in encouraging green consumers to buy green products. Far-reaching research over the years has, among other positive effects, generated an immense understanding concerning green issues; heightened the level of knowledge opportunity on environmental subsistence; encouraged major corporations to opt for green advertising; raised concern for the environment; and expanded recognition of green products by environmental and social charities. This overpowering increase in general ecological awareness among various consumer groups is correlated with the companies’ initiatives to ‘go green’ that has followed the introduction of the idea of corporate environmentalism into the mainstream public consciousness.

In this context, we may notice that there occurs mutual dependence between socially sensitive enterprises and socially sensitive consumers. Business entities can create the needs of consumers by offering proecological products as well as marketing activities that educate individuals and build consumer awareness. At the same time, consumers can force enterprises to engage in appropriate pro-ecological actions and behaviours. Johnstone and Tan (2015) stress that companies’ efforts should be focussed on changing consumers’ perceptions of green products and green activities from unattainable and hard-to-achieve to easy and non-exclusive, as well as focussing on reducing consumers’ scepticism and cynicism if they occur. The research conducted by Accenture in cooperation with United Nations Global Compact (2014) revealed that providing customers with tangible responsibility outcomes would lead the consumer to behave in a manner consistent with sustainable values on the one hand, and on the other, as shown by Hoogendoorn et al. (2015), direct contact with consumers influences SMEs (Small and Medium-sized Enterprises) to offer green products. So does the legislation.

According to the ‘Green Generation’ (Chamber of Electronic Economy 2020) report, 75% of the surveyed Polish companies include the concept of ecology in their strategies and plan to undertake activities supporting environmental protection. An example of a legislative measure mandating an environmental vanguard action is the so-called Single-Use Plastic (SUP) directive, adopted by the European Parliament, according to which all plastic bottles will have to be made in a minimum of 25% from recycled material by 2023 at the latest, and 30% in 2030. As much as 96% of the surveyed companies believe that brand activities can have an impact on changing consumer behaviour, and they may result in a conscious shopping approach or in undertaking actions to protect the environment on a daily basis. In turn, environmentally sensitive consumers should limit the purchase of products in plastic packaging, and they ought to select products made from recycled PET (Politereftalan etylenu) bottles and sort waste.

The Importance of Competences in Changing Consumer Behaviour

The increasing and changing offer of consumer goods and services, which is also a result of globalisation, virtualisation and greening, as well as the shortening of the product life cycle, necessitates researchers and business practitioners to pay greater attention to the requirements of environmentally conscious consumers. Competent consumers should oppose the negative trend of consumerism, i.e. excessive buying, rationalise their market decisions, save time and the environment, and thus protect their own health and those of other consumers. The greening of consumption is most often equated with positive consumer attitudes towards the natural environment and increasing environmental awareness. Many authors associate eco-consumption with the direct response, expressed principally in the form of purchasing choices, arising from buyers’ understanding of the detrimental human impact on the environment attributable to excessive, burdensome and wasteful consumption.

Pro-ecological attitudes and behaviour may be regarded as a consequence of high consumer competences. Analysing the definitions of consumer competences in the literature on the subject, it can be seen that a significant proportion of researchers perceive them from an economic perspective. The authors suggest that the powers of the consumer competence are based on the economic capacity to buy goods and services, as well as the skills, attitudes and knowledge related to the rational approach to consumption and a sceptical attitude towards marketing and advertising communications (for example Royer & Nolf, 1980; John, 1999; Gronhoj, 2004; Lachance & Choquette-Bernier, 2004). Other representatives emphasise the complexity of the concept of consumer competence, indicating that it is a concept consisting of cognitive, behavioural and information dimensions (Lachance & Legault, 2007, p. 1–5; Cloutier, 2014). Consumer competences are also associated with attitudes (Lachance & Legault, 2007, p. 1–5; Berg & Taingen, 2009) and the functioning of the consumer in social structures (Ekopolityka. Polityka ekologiczna w Polsce i na świecie).

Thierry, Sauret and Monod (1994) define competencies as ‘all knowledge, ability to act and attitudes forming a whole depending on the goals and circumstances of specific actions’. Dąbrowska et al. (2015, p. 54) perceive consumer competences as ‘theoretical knowledge and practical skills which help a person meet the lower and higher needs efficiently and effectively, taking responsibility for the choices and decisions made without compromising their expectations concerning quality.’

Research on consumer competences has enabled the identification of a competent consumer of the future. It will be a person who is increasingly aware and possesses knowledge about products and is generally familiar with the production process. This individual will consume more and more, and products available on the market will have a shorter and shorter life cycle. The market and consumers will be divided into sectors according to their material and financial standing. Consumers will strive for self-sufficiency and ‘create ecovillages’ that will use e-services on a mass scale, and products will be further unified (Dąbrowska et al., 2015, p. 104–105).

Frequently, growing ecological awareness is related to food products. Consumers are increasingly keen to reach for local and traditional products, whose quality is related to the production area and its natural, geographical and cultural specificity (regional products). They often opt for ecological and organic products, i.e. food produced without the addition of artificial fertilisers or pesticides. Such a natural way of cultivating soil allows maintaining soil fertility and biological diversity, which is also associated with greater care for the environment in consumption acts. (Dąbrowska & Janoś-Kresło, 2017, p. 5–34). It is worth emphasising that the importance of social consumer competence manifests itself in particular in food consumption (Bylok, 2014, p. 30–42).

According to many European consumers, the high prices of organic food significantly limit consumer interest in purchasing it (Magnuson et al. 2001). This tendency was also confirmed by the findings of the survey carried out among Polish consumers (Dąbrowska & Janoś-Kresło, 2017, p. 32).

Consumer competence and environmental awareness are not the only determinants of consumer choice in terms of organic products. Ecological consumer behaviour can be motivated by, inter alia, governmental activities, activities of consumer movements and broadly perceived sociocultural changes (Dąbrowska et al., 2015, p. 148–173). The social responsibility of consumers also plays an important role in this regard.

Materials and Methods

The purpose of the study was to identify shopping preferences and selected consumer behaviours pertaining to the purchase of ecological/organic food products. The scope of the study, the number of questions and their form and wording, as well as the order of questions, were agreed upon as part of content-related consultations. The CAWI interview questionnaire was prepared using CADAS software to better visualise the questions and make online interviews more attractive, especially in the case of questions using the scale. The survey was conducted in Poland during Sep. 15–27, 2021, with the application of the CAWI technique and using online panels as part of the Omnibus survey. The interview questionnaire consisted of three sets of questions, as well as filtering questions and demographic data. The set of questions concerning ecological/organic food products consisted of four questions, including one demographic question (assessment of statements using a scale), two single-choice questions and one question with the option of indicating more than one answer. The filtering questions included five questions related to the respondents’ gender, age, education and their place of residence. Additional demographic questions were six questions characterising the respondent’s household.

The average time to answer all the questions of the omnibus study (three different question sets) was just over 6 min (6 min and 3 s). A total of 1,980 panellists responded to the request to complete the survey, out of which N = 1,000 respondents qualified for the survey and answered all the questions (success rate 50.5%). N = 980 respondents were not qualified for the study or were rejected at the control stage due to contradictory answers to the control questions, illogical answers to open and semi-open questions, refusal to participate in the study or failure to meet the criteria of filtering questions. The last group of survey participants not qualified for the study received remuneration for their willingness to participate in the study.

The ABR SESTA Institute implemented the control procedure in accordance with the ESOMAR and PTBRIO (Polskie Towarzystwo Badaczy Rynku I Opinii; ang. Polish Society of Market and Opinion Researchers standards and prepared collective result tables. The responses collected from the respondents were subject to control procedures consisting of several steps. The elements that were verified included, among others, the time it took to complete the survey questionnaire and the consistency and logic of the responses. The questionnaires that were filled in too fast or without due care were rejected. The control questions were also used in the survey questionnaire, i.e. the respondents were asked about the device used to complete the questionnaire. The responses of the survey participants who gave contradictory responses have been removed. In addition, a qualitative assessment of the responses was made. It included, among others, the analysis of answers to open-ended and semi-open questions. The respondents’ responses were arranged in interactive result tables prepared using Excel software. To determine whether the observed differences are statistically significant, Bonferroni tests were performed. The Bonferroni test is a statistic that compares all pairs of the independent variable with the Student’s t test while controlling the number of comparisons. The returned significance of differences between the groups includes a correction for the number of comparisons made. It produces more accurate results when there are few comparisons between pairs of measurements or groups. The Bonferroni test is used when the assumption of equal variance is satisfied.

The boundary amounts for gender, age and size of the place of residence were maintained in the study. The sample distribution is presented in Table 1.

Results

Food is considered the basis of human existence as it satisfies physiological needs. A new trend in consumption, i.e. taking care of health, prompts consumers to look for products with specific nutritional values. Such products include organic food produced with the use of ecological farming methods, without the use of pesticides and artificial fertilisers. Ecological/organic food includes fresh produce, meat and dairy products, as well as processed foods such as frozen meals. The respondents were asked whether they were buying organic products when buying food to satisfy the needs of their household. The frequency of making such decisions varied. More than every 10th respondent (10.8%) declared that they always or very often buy ecological/organic food products, while 7.1% never did so (Figure 1).

Ecological/organic products are perceived differently by consumers, and thus respondents were asked to comment on the following statements. For this purpose, a 5-point Likert scale was used, where 1 represented the response ‘I strongly disagree’ and 5 ‘I strongly agree’ (Table 2).

A total of 57.3% of respondents strongly (‘definitely yes’ and ‘rather yes’) agreed with the statement that organic products are expensive but worth the price due to health benefits, which indicates the continual availability of these products in regions where there is a sustained demand for them.This opinion was confirmed by the responses to the second statement that ‘organic products are expensive, so I buy less of them or do not buy them at all’. A total of 61.9% of Poles agreed with such a claim. Nevertheless, 41.0% of respondents believed that the price of organic products corresponded with their quality. It appears that the high prices of organic products make them inaccessible to many consumers. Such an opinion was expressed by 42.6% of respondents. Unaffordability causes consumers to be unable to meet their actual demand. As much as 63.7% of Poles would like to buy more organic products. Perceiving the prices of ecological/organic products as high can justify the behaviour of consumers who buy ecological/organic products when they are available for sale at discounted prices (61.3% of the responses including ‘definitely yes’ or ‘rather yes’).

The statements above were analysed in terms of the answer ‘definitely yes’ according to the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and using Bonferroni’s tests.

The statement ‘organic products are expensive, but worth the price due to health benefits’ was more frequently indicated by women (16.4%) than men (14.1%), people aged 35–44 years (20.9%), people with lower secondary education or less (18.2%), people living in the city with more than 200,000 up to 499,000 residents (22.2%), and those coming from households of four people (20.5%). There were no statistically significant differences. The statement ‘organic products are expensive, so I buy less of them or do not buy them at all’ was chosen by both women (21.2%) and men (20.1%), people aged 45–54 years (23.6%), and people with education at a secondary (20.6%) or higher level (21.4%). People living in a city with more than 500,000 residents (30.4%) also indicated it statistically significantly more frequently than in a city with 50,000–99,000 residents (11.6%) and people living in a single-person household (25.3%).

No significant differences were observed in terms of gender or age with respect to the statement ‘the price of organic products is adequate for their quality’, except for the lowest and highest groups. This opinion was more common among respondents with lower secondary education (13.6%), people living in towns with 100,000–199,000 residents (15.8%) and individuals from three-person households (13.7%).

In the case of the statement ‘organic products are too expensive, not available to me’, men (16.4%) agreed more often than women (11.0%) and it was a statistically significant difference. This response was also selected by people aged 45–54 years (16.1%), people with secondary or post-secondary education (14.7%), people living in the town with 100,000–199,000 residents (16.8%) and persons from single-person households (22.7%).

More women (25.3%) than men (18.9%) would like to buy more ecological/organic products more often (this is a case of a significant statistical relationship). The same claim was also selected by people in the 34–45-year age group (29.1%, statistically significantly more often than people in the 65–80-year age group-9.9%), people declaring lower secondary education level or below (27.3%), those living in a town with 200,000–499,000 residents (33.3%, statistically significantly more often than in towns of up to 9,000 residents — 18.5% and 10,000–49,000 residents — 16.1%), and those coming from four-person households (27.4%, statistically significantly more often than from two-person households — 15.6%).

Based on the data obtained, a profile of the average Pole, who often buys ecological/organic food products, was created. The created profile includes the following characteristics: it is a woman, aged 35–44, with a higher education level, living in a town with 200–499,000 residents and from a four-person household.

Conclusion

Awareness in the context of sustainability can be explained on two general levels. The first and oldest one is ecological awareness, also called environmental awareness, which means to be aware of the human impact on the environment, to feel responsible about the Earth and to take care of the so-called ecological issues (Naess, 1973). The higher and more general level is known as sustainability awareness, which — following the definition of sustainability — includes not only environmental but also socio-economic issues. This approach is now more often used and implemented as more suitable for solving (or rather trying to solve) contemporary world problems (Machnik & Królikowska-Tomczak, 2019). These considerations are regarded as particularly timely and appropriate in view of increasing environmental disasters, including those occurring in Poland.

Consumers usually experience no problem as far as deciphering the term ‘ecological’ or ‘environmentally friendly’ is concerned. This term is most frequently understood by individuals who care for the Earth, live in accordance with the laws of nature, do not litter, segregate waste, save electricity and water, use reusable paper bags rather than plastic ones, do not disturb the balance of the environment, pay attention to what they buy and how they use it, prefer organic food and ecologically friendly automobiles, and actively participate in the environmental movements. In Poland, 56% of Poles believe that ecology is a conscious choice, a sense of responsibility and an attitude that does not pass, while the remaining 44% is of the opinion that this is the current fashion that will soon be forgotten (Ekopolityka. Polityka ekologiczna w Polsce i na świecie).

However, when observing the changes taking place in the natural environment, the inference emerges that knowing the concept is not enough in itself. We need to change our approach and perception of the phenomenon, from a short — to long-term perspective and apply the five principles of zero waste, namely: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Rot (Izba Gospodarki Elektronicznej, 2020, p. 24–26). Collaborative consumption, also known as sharing consumption or collaborative consumption, can play an essential role in this context. The concept refers to the tradition of sharing goods, exchanging them, borrowing, renting and donating, and modern technology and the development of the information society assign a new meaning and a new role to this concept (Dąbrowska & Janoś-Kresło, 2018, p. 132–149).

The social responsibility of modern consumers can be viewed from the perspective of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019). In the era of the coronavirus pandemic, our consumer decisions made during everyday purchases can be seen as decisive, which might affect the fate of people, the economy and the environment and which can support charitable activities and the local market and enterprises. The consumer’s inalienable right is the right to choose, and the conscious exercise of this right is associated with a responsibility for purchasing decisions and their effects. The uncertainty of the pandemic situation means that many consumers stock excessively, and this is especially the result of alluring offers made by large shopping networks and e-commerce websites. Excessive purchases of food, in particular, can lead to its wastage, and thus to the waste of resources, energy, water, etc., which are perceived as increasingly limited resources. Perhaps it is under such circumstances that it becomes particularly important to ask oneself the following questions: ‘What are the products that I wish to buy made up of and how were they created?’; ‘Who produced them and in what conditions, and how do their use and utilisation affect the natural and social environments?’ It is also worth remembering that according to the report of the International Ecological Organization (WWF, 2019), members of the European Union use almost 20% of the Earth’s biological potential. In addition, if every inhabitant of the planet consumed the same amount as an average resident of the EU, 2.8 planets would be needed to regenerate the ecosystem. This value greatly exceeds the world average, which is estimated at about 1.75 of the Earth.

Both consumers and business entities should behave in a responsible manner. As Jonas (Greisch, 1992, p. 105–105) notes, responsibility as a positive duty turns out to be, in essence, driven by the feeling of ‘the sense of being responsible’. As Kotler (2010) observes, the modern consumer has gained a soul, and the goal set by the enterprise is to make the world a better place. The passage from material consumption to non-material consumption, and also from instrumental values to autotelic values connected with observing the right of all living creatures to a dignified life respecting their well-being, constitutes the indicators of the new model of society (Patrzałek, 2019).

If deconsumption might be seen as a permanent trend in the development of modern consumption (Bylok, 2017), perhaps Bauman’s words are still valid (1998) ‘…to become a fully feathered and full-fledged member of society, you need to efficiently and effectively respond to the excitement and the temptation of the consumer market’.

Every consumer and every entrepreneur needs to answer the questions about what matters to them, and which values they consider to be their priorities.

In the context of the above considerations, relevant conclusions can be drawn.

The concept of ecological consumption, similar to the one of a responsible consumer or a responsible enterprise, is evolving. It not only focuses on environmental issues, but also covers much broader issues, such as returning to our ‘green’ roots, climate change and social responsibility. Households have a significant impact on the environment through consumption: energy, food, transportation, water and waste production (OECD, 2014; Manson, 2018).

First of all, one should be aware that ecological consumption concerns all generations, although sensitivity to ecology may vary in societies. Only joint activities supported by education and building proper competencies facilitate achieving the set goals. This is especially important if we consider the above-mentioned results of the study, which indicate that in Poland only 31% of Internet users are interested in the condition of the natural environment, and 44% of them consider Poland to be an ecologically endangered area.

Apart from governments and state institutions, the main role in shaping pro-ecological attitudes is played by consumers and enterprises offering goods and services on the market (Kuokkanen, Sun, 2016). The changes in attitudes, purchasing behaviour, values and everyday habits that would be required to initiate the transition of a consumer from consumption characterised by an attitude of apathy for the ecological situation to one by concern can be effected through involving them in programmes benefitting the environment, and the success with which these are implemented depends upon their scale and reach. It is worth remembering that regardless of the social and professional roles played, each of us is still a consumer.

Businesses and consumers create mutually dependent relations. Therefore, consumers should demand green goods and services from enterprises and, as prosumers, they should expect companies to implement practical and environmentally friendly solutions. Brands should increasingly undertake eco-initiatives. In formulating marketing campaigns to inform consumers about the product, the business should ensure that the message that is prepared for this purpose strongly explains not only the features and composition of the product but also whether it has been manufactured in an environmentally sustainable manner; this will enable the consumer to judge whether they are going to purchase environmentally friendly and ethical products. It is necessary to carry out more information — and education-based activities in line with the concept of sustainable consumption.

The survey of consumer attitudes towards organic products was conducted using the CAWI technique because of the ease and speed of reaching potential respondents, and because respondents are reached within a reasonable budget. The limitation of this technique is that we do not reach people who are not using the Internet. On the other hand, the number of people who do not use the Internet in Poland is decreasing year by year, and the CAWI technique is gaining popularity, due to the large number of potential respondents. ABR SESTA, through its cooperation with SYNO Poland, offers access to more than 1.8 million potential respondents to the CAWI technique in Poland. This allows us to more easily profile respondents and more easily map the structure for a representative sample.

As consumers, we are marked by constant change. Consumers and businesses operate in uncertain times, times marked by critical events. Therefore, it is important to repeat the survey at intervals of no less than 12 months in order to observe possible changes in consumer behaviour and business actions. Changes in consumer behaviour can be the result of producers’ actions or lack of producers’ actions. Keeping the survey cyclical will make it possible to observe these changes and make inferences based on them. What is important in cyclical measurements is the use of an unchanged methodology.

The authors regard this article as a contribution towards the furtherance of discussions and research on significant and topical issues connected with CSR.

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The circular economy (CE) is an increasingly popular approach to create sustainable business. The aim of a CE is to attain a sustainable society and economy by avoiding and minimising resource consumption through multiple product-and-material loops (Ellen MacArthur Foundation [EMF], 2015). Sustainable consumption (SC) is a complex and ambivalent concept composed of two visibly opposite terms-consumption and sustainability. Existing definitions nevertheless show that the main aim of SC is to reach the harmony between the satisfaction of consumer needs and preservation of the environment (Piligrimiene, Žukauskaite, Korzilius, Banyte & Dovaliene, 2020). SC entails satisfying consumer needs while reducing negative impacts caused during material extraction, production and consumption (Mont and Plepys, 2008; Cooper, 2013).

SC emphasises individual actions of consumers in the areas of acquisition, usage and disposal of goods, products and services, taking into account the impact on ecological and socioeconomic conditions for today’s and future generations (Geng, Mansouri & Aktas, 2017). According to Phipps et al. (2013), SC is a compromise between environmental, social and economic aims, acquiring, using and utilising products, seeking global welfare for the present and future generations. SC, representing the demand side of the consumption/production coin, should allow for potential changes in consumer behaviour (Phipps et al., 2013). SC patterns are necessary to realise a sustainable society and economy (Druckman & Jackson, 2010). Customer SC behaviours facilitate the efficient use of underutilised resources (e.g. sharing spare household resource) and extend the life cycle of accessed products (e.g. keeping items in good conditions for others), thereby reflecting the significant potential of sustainability in the sharing economy (SE) (Munoz & Cohen, 2017). Second-hand clothing is an example of recycling that extends the life of products by reusing. Reuse of clothing is associated with reducing the amount of disposed clothing, thereby reducing environmental pollution (Farrant, Olsen & Wangel, 2010). Second-hand and vintage clothes are getting popular due to environmental benefits and also for a personal style (Johansson, 2010).

The main purpose of this paper is to identify the importance and to determine the influence of selected types of motives on the attitudes towards using collaborative fashion consumption (CFC) applications/ platforms and willingness to use them in the future.

The Concept of CFC

Collaborative consumption (CC) is one of the new consumption trends in consumer behaviour that includes an alternative approach to meeting needs. This trend is based on access to goods without the need to own and transfer property rights. In Belk (2014), the term ‘collaborative consumption’ was defined as ‘people coordinating the acquisition and distribution of a resource for a fee or other compensation’. CC is dynamically developing in various areas of human activity. The popularity of CC has significantly increased due to the development of digitalisation. Owing to the dissemination of smartphones, the development of mobile technologies, Internet accessibility and the proliferation of online payment, the CC has never been so easy and widespread (Muangmee, Kot, Meekaewkunchorn, Kassakorn & Khalid, 2021; Kapoor & Vij, 2021). The growing consumer awareness of environmental concerns and anticonsumerist attitudes also contribute to the development of CC. The areas in which it is most developed include transport, tourism, education, food, clothing, healthcare and leisure (Paczka, 2020). CC is most often studied in the context of the SE (Belk, 2014), prosumption (Ritzer & Jurgenson, 2010), sharing (Belk, 2010; Lamberton & Rose, 2012), access-based consumption (Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012) or connected consumption (Schor & Fitzmaurice, 2015). The principal idea behind all of these approaches is to promote the notion of using, as opposed to owning, products (Iran & Schrader, 2017).

According to Iran and Schrader (2017), CFC is a consumption trend ‘in which consumers, instead of buying new fashion products, have access to already existing garments either through alternative opportunities to acquire individual ownership (gifting, swapping or second hand) or through usage options for fashion products owned by others (sharing, lending, renting or leasing)’. CFC can be between peers; then, we are talking about ‘pure cooperation’, a form that has existed since forever, when clothes were shared between family members prior to the industrial revolution (Belk, 2014). Nowadays, it could be organised by peers themselves either through online or offline platforms. But it can also take place between businesses and end consumers; then, we are talking about ‘trading cooperation’. There are companies offering either service as substitutes for product ownership (renting and leasing) or second-hand retail service to make the purchase of new products dispensable (Iran & Schrader, 2017). Finally, CFC can be mediated by a third party; then, we are talking about ‘sourcing collaboration’ (Henninger, Brydges, Iran & Vladimirova, 2021). On the basis of the literature review, the following forms of CFC can be distinguished: sharing, borrowing, reuse, charity, second-hand market, SC, anti-consumption, swapping, resale, take-back schemes and repurpose. These practices result in reduced new product acquisitions, increased product reuse and extended product life cycle (Armstrong, Niinimäki, Lang & Kujala, 2016). Various forms of CFC are accepted and practiced by consumers. Some people accept one or more form(s) of CFC, while others reject the concept entirely and are against sharing their clothes (Iran, Geiger & Schrader, 2018). In the apparel industry, the SE enables consumers to have access to fashion products that would not be accessible otherwise, achieving more variety in apparel choice (Balck & Cracau, 2015).

CFC has gained an increasing amount of attention among not only consumers but also academia (Lang, Seo & Liu, 2019). Researchers identify that CFC serves to not only reduce waste and negative environmental impact (Gopalakrishnan & Matthews, 2018) but also increase sustainability in the apparel industry (Geissdoerfer, Savaget, Bocken & Hultink, 2017).

The emergence of new information and communication technologies has caused significant changes in the rules of fashion sharing. Such activities, initially carried out only with family members or friends and acquaintances, gradually began to be undertaken also with previously unknown people. Access to new technology and digital platforms makes it easier to communicate at a distance and to find people who have spare resources and those who would like to use them. More and more platforms for CFC have emerged around the world, e.g. Rent the Runway, Share Wardrobe, GlamCorner, Dress & Go, Vinted, Zalando Pre-owned and E-Garderobe.com (Lee, Jung & Lee, 2021). Such platforms are having a serious impact on the fashion industry. Contemporary SE applications create a market form in which strangers rather than kin and communities exchange garments, thereby creating new ways of provisioning goods and services as well as opportunities for CC. Many consumers are becoming more open to renting and thrifting and, as a result, businesses are adapting by making the shift from not only selling products but also offering subscription services. An individual who cannot afford to buy luxury goods can rent various designer fashion items at lower prices. It is worth noting that CFC applies to different consumer segments of the clothing market. According to experts, CFC could rapidly grow into one of the fastestgrowing segments of retail in the next 10 years (Chieng, 2021).

Hypotheses Development and Conceptual Model

Users’ motivation to participate in CFC has been the subject of research by scientists all over the world for many years. Guiot and Roux (2010) distinguished three main categories of motives for second-hand shopping: critical motivations (distance from the consumption system, ethics and ecology), economic motivations (gratificative role of price, searching for a fair price) and hedonic/recreational motivation (treasure hunting, originality, social contact and nostalgia). Padmavathy, Swapana and Paul (2019) proposed a scale to measure online second-hand shopping motivation and focussed on economic motivation (price orientation, bargaining power and critical orientation), convenience motivation (usefulness and ease of use) and ideological motivation (need to be unique, nostalgia, trust and assurances). Based on a literature review, Becker-Leifhold and Iran (2018) identified the drivers of CFC from a consumers’ perspective — hedonic motives (e.g. availability of rare items, excitement, fun, satisfaction, treasure hunting, nostalgia and social interaction), utilitarian motives (smart purchase behaviour, fair price, frugality and bargains) and biospheric motives (environment-friendly consumption, prevention of wasteful disposal and distance from the system). Zaman, Park, Kim and Park (2019) distinguished six consumer orientations relevant to second-hand clothing shopping: frugality, style consciousness, ecological consciousness, dematerialism, nostalgia proneness and fashion consciousness. Park and Armstrong (2019) classified five basic consumer motivations for collaborative apparel consumption: saving money, saving time, finding desirable product assortment, utility and no burden of ownership. Cervellon, Carey and Harms (2012) have studied the influence of nostalgia, fashion involvement, need for uniqueness, need for status, frugality and value consciousness and environmental-friendly proneness on the intention to purchase second-hand fashion pieces (and vintage pieces). Xu, Chen, Burman and Zhao (2014), in their cross-cultural study, distinguished four perceived values for purchasing second-hand clothing: economic value, hedonic value or treasure hunting, uniqueness and environmental value. The results of their study have shown significant differences in second-hand clothing consumption behaviour between US and Chinese consumers. This justifies the conduct of research in individual countries, as the behaviour of consumers from different countries may differ significantly from each other.

The subject scope of our study includes the recognition of the impact of economic and utility motives (e.g. promotions, convenience and saving time), social motives (e.g. being a part of a group of people with similar interests, image and following trends) and ecological motives (e.g. to protect/care for the natural environment, to limit excessive consumption and to extend the life of the products) on attitudes towards CFC applications and the willingness to use them in the future.

Economic and Utility Motives

The analysed literature on the consumption of used clothing suggests that pragmatic motivations based on time and money saving play an important role in shaping attitudes towards second-hand buying (Williams & Paddock, 2003). Guiot and Roux (2010) state that economic motivations are important incentives of second-hand purchase behaviour. The results of a study conducted by Cervellon et al. (2012) have shown that the main driver for the purchase of second-hand clothes is frugality. Studies indicate that economic factors play the most important role for clients when making decisions on the use of SE (Barnes & Mattsson, 2016). However, it should be noticed that the findings of the study by Won and Kim (2020) suggest that utilitarian motives (saving money or maximising utility) do not affect consumer attitude towards fashion-sharing platforms. On the other hand, the findings of Ek Styvén and Mariani (2020) indicate that economic motivations influence positively the attitude towards buying second-hand clothing on SE platforms. The study by Yan, Bae and Xu (2015) has shown that college students’ shopping frequency for second-hand clothing was predicted by price sensitivity.

Based on a review of previous research, the authors propose the following hypotheses.

Hypothesis 1a (H1a): Economic and utility motives positively influence the attitudes towards using CFC applications/platforms.

Hypothesis 1b (H1b): Economic and utility motives positively influence the willingness to use CFC applications in the future.

Social Motives

Social motives are incorporated for instance in the possibility of getting to know other people who have similar desires (Benoit, Baker, Bolton, Gruber & Kandampully, 2017). Findings from a study by Angelovska, Èeh Èasni and Lutz (2020) suggest that motives such as meeting with people and social responsibility are significant predictors of participation in the SE. A study by Yan et al. (2015) suggests that consumers who shopped for second-hand clothing might do so for social reasons (among others). Psychological factors promote people to interact on peer-to-peer (P2P) platforms and form the basis for borrowing and rental mechanisms, as well as transferring ownership through exchange, donation or purchase of used goods (Hamari, 2013; Hamari, Sjöklint & Ukkonen, 2016; Piscicelli, Cooper & Fisher, 2015).

Based on a review of previous research, the authors propose the following hypotheses.

Hypothesis 2a (H2a): Social motives positively influence the attitudes towards using CFC applications/platforms.

Hypothesis 2b (H2b): Social motives positively influence the willingness to use CFC applications in the future.

Ecological Motives

The SE is part of ethical consumerism, and participation in it can be perceived as a form of sustainable consumer behaviour (Perlacia, Duml & Saebi, 2017). Sold sales, transition, renting or transferring unwanted/unnecessary clothes contributes to the extension of the product life, reduction of production and fashion waste (Perlacia et al., 2017; Sarigöllü, Hou & Ertz, 2021). Although participation in the sharing economy may potentially have a positive impact on the environment (Botsman & Rogers, 2010) (no resource consumption), it does not seem to be a strong motivator for many consumers (Habibi et al., 2016). Furthermore, Leismann, Schmitt, Rohn and Baedeker (2013) show that ‘use instead of having’ patterns may also have undesirable ecological side effects, because customers can abuse shopping, which can eliminate positive environmental effects. Some studies suggest that purchase of second-hand clothes is not driven by ecological consciousness directly but through the mediating effect of bargain hunting (Cervellon et al., 2012). Findings from the study by Won and Kim (2020) indicate that hedonic and ecological motivation affects consumer attitude towards fashion-sharing platforms. Ek Styvén and Mariani (2020) found that perceived sustainability influences positively the attitude towards buying second-hand clothing on sharing-economy platforms. On the other hand, the study by Yan et al. (2015) did not confirm the relationship between environmental attitudes and the shopping frequency for second-hand clothing among college students. Those authors noticed, however, that second-hand shoppers tend to be more environmentally conscious than non-shoppers.

The literature review findings regarding the impact of ecological motives on attitudes towards SE/CC and participation in SE/CC are ambiguous. The authors propose the following hypotheses.

Hypothesis 3a (H3a): Ecological motives positively influence the attitudes towards using CFC applications/platforms.

Hypothesis 3b (H3b): Ecological motives positively influence the willingness to use CFC applications in the future.

Attitude

According to the theory of planned behaviour, an individual’s intention to perform a certain behaviour is determined by a combination of three factors: attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991). The assumption of the positive influence of the attitude towards CC or second-hand shopping on behaviour intention (participation in CC or buying second-hand fashion) is supported in the literature. In the study by Hamari et al. (2016), attitude had a significant positive effect on behavioural intentions to participate in CC. Ek Styvén and Mariani (2020) suggest that attitude towards buying second-hand fashion positively influences behavioural intention to buy second-hand goods on P2P-SE platforms. Won and Kim (2020) indicate that consumers’ attitudes towards fashion-sharing platforms have a positive effect on their purchase intentions.

Based on a review of past research, the authors assume that the attitude towards CFC positively affects behavioural intention and thus propose the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 4 (H4): The attitudes towards using CFC applications/platforms positively influence the willingness to use them in the future.

The following conceptual research model is proposed (Figure 1):

Research Design

The data was collected through an online research panel (Nationwide Research Panel Ariadna) with the use of an online survey in 2021 on a total of 412 Polish respondents. The non-random sampling method was used in the selection of the research sample. The structure of the research sample corresponded to the structure of adult Poles in terms of gender, age, education level and place of residence. The dataset was created with SPSS, version 27 (IBM). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed and a structural equation model (SEM) was developed using AMOS, version 21.0. Based on prior studies, a multi-item measurement scale was developed to measure motives and attitude. Economic and utility motives, social motives, ecological motives and attitude were each measured with four items and behaviour intention with one item. All items were measured utilising a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).

The selection of the research sample was carried out by the quota method (selection criteria: sex, age and place of residence). The structure of the research sample is presented in Table 1.

Measurement Model

Table 2 shows the results of the CFA, including factor loadings and descriptive statistics. Two of three motives to participate as a user of CFC platforms were of relatively high importance: economics and utility motives (EU) (meanEU = 3.88) and ecological (ECO) (meanECO = 3.65). Social (SOC) motives were considered by the respondents as less important (meanSOC = 3.22).

SEM was used to test the hypothetical relationships between observable and/or latent variables in experimental and non-experimental research (Konarski, 2009, p. 15). The SEM consisted of a structural and a measurement part — the structural part of the model describes the theoretical cause-and-effect relation or correlation between the studied phenomena, while the measurement part takes place when the analysed phenomena are not directly measurable (therefore, they are represented in the constructed model by unobservable/latent variables). This means that before starting the estimation of the SEM, its measurement part should be determined and verified. One of the methods of verification of the measurement model is by the use of CFA (Bedyńska & Książek, 2012, pp. 219–223). The reliability of the measurement instrument was tested using CFA, where the results showed acceptable model fit indices (Table 3).

The evaluation of the overall measurement model (Figure 2) and the assessment of reliability and validity of the constructs were performed with a CFA. In the process of evaluating the measurement model, the discriminant and convergent validities were verified — the discriminant validity measures the extent to which the factors intended to measure a specific construct are actually unrelated (Wang & Wang, 2012). The Fornell and Larcker approach for the assessment of discriminant validity was used (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Within this approach, the average variance extracted (AVE) for each research construct should be higher than the square of the correlation between the construct and other constructs (Ode & Ayavoo, 2020). The diagonal (shown in bold with asterisks — *) elements shown in the table are the squares of multiple correlations between the research variables. As shown in Table 4, the AVE ranges from 0.57 to 0.81, while the diagonal values range from 0.75 to 0.90, indicating that the diagonal variables are higher than the AVE values (in rows); this result suggests that all constructs have appropriate discriminant validity. The data presented in the table shows that the measurement model has satisfactory discriminant validity.

Convergent validity measures the degree to which the factors measuring single constructs are consistent with each other. Convergent validity was assessed using composite reliability (CR) and AVE — the minimum values adopted in the analysis were such that AVE should be >0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981), factor loadings should be >0.6 and CR should be >0.6 (Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson, 2009; Ahmed, Romeika, Kauliene, Streimikis & Dapkus, 2020; Popa & Dabija, 2019; Szczepańska-Woszczyna, 2021). On the basis of the obtained results, all three minimum values were reached, which suggests that the reliability and validity of the model and the constructs used are acceptable.

Structural Model

Based on the research conducted in the literature review, the results of CFA and the proposed hypotheses, a research model was developed and is graphically illustrated in Figure 3. All the fit indices of the SEM allow us to proceed to the verification of the research hypotheses.

Testing the Hypotheses

The test results for the hypotheses are shown in Table 5. The results indicate that ATT was influenced by EU (β = 0.410, p < 0.001), SOC (β = –0.195, p = 0.002) and ECO (β = 0.455, p < 0.001). We found that EU (β = 0.255, p < 0.001), SOC (β = –0.223, p < 0.001) and ATT (β = 0.706, p < 0.001) influenced BI. ECO has been found to be not significantly associated with BI. It should be noticed that the hypothesis regarding social motives (H2a and H2b) were not supported due to the negative effect of those factors on ATT and BI.

Discussion

Our study allowed to identify the importance and to determine the effect of economic and utility motives, social motives and ecological motives on the attitudes towards using CFC apps/platforms and behavioural intention regarding the willingness to use them. We investigated also the influence of attitude towards using CFC platforms on behavioural intention. As assumed, our study confirmed the effect of attitude on willingness to use CFC applications in the future.

The findings suggest that economic and utility motives were considered by the respondents to be the most important type of motivation for participation as a user (consumer) of CFC applications. The results confirm previous findings wherein economic/utility/frugality motivation was suggested to be a main or important driver of secondhand fashion consumption (Guiot & Roux, 2010; Cervellon et al., 2012). Furthermore, economic and utility motives significantly affected the attitude towards CFC apps and the willingness to use them in the future. Those conclusions are in line with the works of other researchers (e.g. Ek Styvén & Mariani, 2020; Yan et al., 2015). It should be recalled that the overall findings of prior studies in this area are ambiguous. In some studies, utilitarian motives (saving money or minimalising utility) did not affect consumer attitude towards fashion-sharing platforms (Won & Kim, 2020).

Social motives turned out to be the least important factor (among the three types of motivation) for participation in CFC as a consumer. While analysis of the literature suggests that social motives might be an important reason for second-hand clothing shopping behaviour (Yan et al., 2015) or can be a significant predictor of participation in the SE (Angelovska et al., 2020), our findings seem to be quite interesting in that aspect. In our research, social motives significantly affected both attitude towards CFC platforms and intention to use them in the future; however, the effect on those variables was negative.

Ecological motives were considered to be a relatively important factor for buying second-hand clothing through CFC platforms. Our study findings confirm that ecological motives positively influence the attitudes towards using CFC applications/platforms, which is in line with previous studies by Won and Kim (2020) or Ek Styvén and Mariani (2020). It should be noted, however, that our results did not support the hypothesis that those motives positively influence the willingness to use CFC applications in the future, same as in Yan et al. (2015). Ecological motivation can be seen as a quite important factor regarding participation in CFC platforms, but they may not directly affect the behavioural intention to use them.

Conclusions

The results of our research have shown that there is significant evidence to conclude that the most important motives for using online applications for collaborative fashion consumption were economic and utility motives. Moreover, their impact on attitudes towards these applications and the willingness to use them was confirmed. Past research demonstrates that second-hand consumers are more likely to be price-sensitive and motivated by low prices. Saving money is a key driver for consumers. Thus, low prices exert a major influence on consumers’ willingness to purchase second-hand goods (Cervellon et al., 2012; Guiot & Roux, 2010; Isla, 2013; Williams & Paddock, 2003). Ecological motives emerged as relatively important determinants of the use of CFC applications. Environmental and ethical benefits of garment reuse are also significant drivers according to previous research (Guiot & Roux, 2010; Waight, 2013; Xu et al., 2014). Social motives not only were the least important determinants of participation in CFC, but they seem to have a negative impact on both ATT and willingness to use CFC platforms.

From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the fashion literature by shedding light on the motivations for using CFC online platforms, especially in the context of the results on social motives. The findings presented in this article can be extremely valuable and useful in designing and implementing solutions to support CFC, such as mobile applications or dedicated websites. The results of our research can be used when designing activities in the field of marketing communication. In order to promote their applications/platforms, enterprises should first of all focus on economic and utility benefits, as well as on ecological aspects, and not focus on social benefits.

Limitations and future research directions

The study has several limitations. Because of the sample size and the selected method of sampling, the results cannot be treated as representative for the general population of Polish consumers who use CFC platforms to buy second-hand clothing. Due to the differences in consumer behaviour regarding various forms of participation in SE/CC, it should be kept in mind that the possibility of inference is limited only to CFC platforms. Our research was focussed on three types of motivation regarding the usage of CFC applications, so it would be a good idea to widen the spectrum of motives in future research. The research findings could be used to describe the consumer behaviour of Polish consumers; however, it should be noticed that due to cultural differences, the importance and the influence of motives for using CFC platforms can differ in other countries. It would be interesting to conduct cross-country research in that aspect. Future studies could also explore other forms of consumer behaviour regarding the usage of CFC platforms, e.g. consumer engagement.

Acknowledgements

The study was conducted within the research project Economics in the face of the New Economy financed within the Regional Initiative for Excellence programme of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of Poland, years 2019–2022, grant no. 004/RID/2018/19, financing 3,000,000 PLN.

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The oldest identified use of the word “dandy” is to be found in the correspondence between two English poets — Lord Byron and Thomas
Moor. In a letter dated 25 July 1813, Byron admitted that he himself had been a “dandy” in his youth (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1995, p. 27). At its core, dandyism was not just a distinctive way of truly elegant dressing, especially in the nineteenth century, but a complete philosophical current that elevated elegance and aesthetics in the field of clothing to the status of almost transcendent values, creating a closed club (almost an alternative society) made up of true individualists (Maciejewski and Lesznik 2020, Howells 1996). The dandies, mainly young men (Smith 1974), tried their best to be seen as the most elegant members of society — almost heroes, often undertaking an ever-futile and romantic fight against the omnipresent mediocrity. A formally secondary goal (although it is difficult to say if it might not have unofficially been the main one) was to spark interest around oneself, to generate controversy and — above all — to stand out from the crowd (Visser 2011, Rhodes 1928).

The over-elegance of representatives of this trend is considered to be a sign of the Decadent movement, while the dandies themselves are thought to have been guided only by an aesthetic scale (Niedziałkowska 2011). Generally it is believed that dandyism as such constitutes a closed chapter in history — that the trend either died out or evolved in a new direction, losing its fundamentally philosophical traits in favour of simplistic, hedonistic consumption of certain types of luxury goods — for example, stylistically matched sports clothes (Ferrero-Regis 2017).

However, dandyism could be reduced to a niche in the clothing market, more broadly within the elegant clothing segment. It has also been suggested that in the twenty-first century this trend may have common points with metrosexuality, and may even potentially constitute the distant source of the latter, as a certain type of seduction strategy (Halligan 2011, Maciejewski 2012, Gheorghe 2015).

The purpose of this study is, therefore, not only to describe the behaviour of elegantly-dressing Polish males (including self-declared “dandies”) in a clothing market, but also to juxtapose their characteristics against those of metrosexuals, thus searching for any potential tangential points between these two groups of consumers.

Dandyism in the new era

The dandies of the nineteenth century can be considered the original “hipsters” who set canons of fashion, while themselves not being
subordinate to them (Okulicz-Kozaryn 1995, p. 13). It is difficult to say the same thing about those people who consider themselves dandies today: clearly they do not dictate canons, in fact quite the contrary — they are in some ways opposed to them. Within slightly modernized types showing some connections with dandyism, the authors define in the broadest sense the: the classical, the romantic and the sportive. The “classics” are inspired by the golden, nineteenth-century Brummel epoch (a progenitor of all dandies), but adapt their clothes to contemporary reality. They are elegant in the classical sense, somewhat closer to the model of a gentleman, whose clothing is to be a part of the overall image of a person (Przybylski 1982, Skrucha 2012). On the contrary, the “romantics” are characterized by a historical regression of clothes that are matched according to their mood. The most progressive type is “sportive”, while its representatives prefer the so-called smart casual (d’Hamilton 2015) — for example a combination of a blazer, jeans and sneakers, which brings to mind the metrosexual style.

Metrosexuals, in turn, are defined as young, wealthy men from large cities who spend a significant part of their income on clothes and improving their self-image (Casanova, Wetzel, and Speice 2016). Because of this characteristic, some authors even classify metrosexuals as narcissistic dandies (Gębala 2008). Metrosexuality does not constitute a life philosophy, rather focusing only on the hedonistic domain of consumption: its individualization (apparent in the postmodern era, Maciejewski 2014) and the so-called well-being (Cheng et al. 2010). However, it is not indicated what style of clothing the expenses are related to. Metrosexualism therefore resembles in some points a reduced form of dandyism, burdened with the casualization of clothing that is characteristic of highly developed postmodern societies of the twenty-first century. On the other hand, it cannot be said that in the new millennium there is a shortage of men interested in classical elegance, as evidenced by the success of blogs (see www 1), internet forums (see www 2) and books devoted to this subject (see Kędziora 2013). Contemporary elegance on the one hand succumbs to the hedonism of new design, cuttings and fabrics, while on the other, fits into ideas of slow fashion (especially due to the relative stability of classic canons in time, Hirscher 2013) or the broadly understood goals of sustainability of the fashion market — in particular thanks to customers’ profound awareness and paying close attention to the quality of the product, which is intended to serve for a longer period of time (Gurova and Morozova 2016).

Some authors, while searching for contemporary elements of dandyism, point to the existing ethnic trends, two of which have been described in depth in the literature: the so-called Muslim dandies and the Swenkas. Muslim dandyism means wearing a suit primarily as a mark of own heterosexuality, as well as being a mature man — a serious candidate for a life-time partner to safely build a family with (Khabeer 2017). Therefore, a symbolic significance of clothing serves as an element that builds a man (similarly to classic gentlemen). South African participants of the Swenkas subculture fall slightly more into the characteristic of classical dandyism. So-called swenking is a culture based on a distinctive style and good manners. In essence, following its rules grants prestige and social status. Like the classical type, the Swenkas combine classic with modernity, but without trying to be just another copy of the European style. Swenking can take quite grotesque forms due to the modest living conditions of Swenkers and at the same time their clothes and accessories exorbitantly expensive by local standards (Goeller 2014).

Considering how much dandyism is associated with male elegance, the question arises whether a woman could / can be a dandy. Potentially it might be considered possible, but more likely in terms of the “fashionable woman” — an elegant and well?groomed lady with some features of a dandy. However, it is difficult to identify actual, historical representatives, hence dandyism should be considered a strictly male phenomenon, also today (Gill 2007).

Research methodology and sample description

After researching secondary sources on the roots and theoretical background of dandyism, we decided to conduct a study using an online survey technique among Polish consumer e?communities gathering together enthusiasts of elegant clothing (hence among a deliberately selected research group), on the assumption that such thematic discussion groups constitute natural communities in which people claiming to be modern dandies might appear.

Due to the difficulty in reaching out to the target group, being a scattered niche, links to our questionnaire were posted on forums and groups devoted to male-elegance enthusiasts, in October and November 2020. This original questionnaire consisted of 21 thematic questions — covering a wide spectrum of behaviours and characteristics to describe the image of contemporary dandyism, but also the elegant segment of the clothing market — and 7 demographic questions. Respondents could provide their e-mails in order to be sent the published article based on the results of this study — approximately 39% of the participants expressed interest in the final results. It is estimated that invitations to participate in the study may theoretically have reached a maximum of 7,000 people.

Based on the analysis of the targeted consumer e-communities, it was estimated that the group of men highly interested in elegant style in Poland does not exceed 10,000 in number. Most of them, however, cannot be considered active community participants, hence the number of actual users, deeply interested in the subject, most likely would not exceed 2,000–3,000, of which self-declared “dandies” can be expected to constitute only a fraction (according to the literature, claiming that this is a vanishing trend). A total of 167 completely and correctly completed questionnaires were obtained and were qualified for further analysis, which was carried out using the SPSS 26 statistical package, as well as the WordClouds text visualization and sentiment evaluation software.

The sample as a whole consisted only of men with a median age of 25 years, a mean age of 27.5 and a dominant age of 22. The respondents may generally be described as relatively young; their characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Due to the relatively young age of the respondents, as many as 67.1% of them were unmarried. The vast majority of respondents had higher education (64.7%), whereas less than 1/3 had secondary education. The declared occupations of the participants suggest that most of the interviewees in the latter subgroup were still in course of their highereducation studies. Another tangential point with metrosexuality was found in the size of the respondents’ place of residence: 64.1% of them lived in large cities. However, the distribution of monthly earnings compared to the national average was more uniform: more than half of the respondents had an income equal to or lower than the average wage in the Polish economy. Particular attention should be paid to the percentage of respondents describing themselves as a “dandy” (dandys in Polish), which was slightly less than 30%: this number stands in stark contrast to the theoretical considerations in the literature, which describe dandyism as fading out at the end of the twentieth century.

Figure 2 presents the professions declared by the respondents in the form of a tag cloud, where the larger the word, the more often it was mentioned in the respondents’ answers.

Participants predominantly declared professions traditionally associated with or requiring elegant attire: lawyers, managers, entrepreneurs or economists. There was also a large group of students.

Results

The broadly-defined elegant style was divided into three currents / subtypes: smart casual (e.g. combining blazers and sneakers), business and strictly formal (the most elegant types of clothing). The respondents’ declarations about the preferred sub-types in their own style are presented in Table 2.

Almost 72% of the respondents generally opted in favour of a more casual style. Among older respondents (26 and over), there was a higher percentage of those choosing a business style, probably for work-related reasons (30.4% compared to 12.5% among interviewees aged 25 and under).

It is worth noting, however, that younger participants and those from smaller towns relatively more often opted for a formal style as compared to older respondents and those from larger cities. Similar discrepancies were noted in terms of monthly income. A strictly formal style was preferred by 18.4% of dandies and only 2.5% of non-dandies.

The reasons as to why the respondents chose a given style were classified into several recurring categories, which are presented in Figure 3.

Interviewees generally indicated well-being and improved self-esteem when they felt they were properly (in that case — elegantly) dressed. Factors also significant were a sense of uniqueness and a desire to stand out from the crowd, as well as an original sense of aesthetics and treating elegant clothing as a hobby — a distinguishing feature of a person. The argument of professional attire was also often cited, even if such requirements were not explicitly stated in respondents’ places of work.

A vast majority of respondents (almost 72%) have been interested in male elegance for at least several years. Only 3% of participants were just starting their adventure, which indicates that people active in this niche generally have quite “lengthy experience”. A detailed breakdown of the respondents is presented in Table 3.

It is not surprising that older respondents generally had a longer history in the field of elegant clothing. This relationship was also observed in terms of marital status, where fewer than 30% of married respondents had been interested in this subject for several years, analogically in the breakdown based on the level of monthly income. No major differences were found between self-declared dandies vs. non-dandies.

The main sources of knowledge and inspiration indicated by the respondents are thematic Internet blogs devoted to men’s elegance (88.6% of respondents declared using them) and discussion groups (70.7%). Details are presented in Table 4.

Traditional media, including television and literature, are currently the least frequently used source of information about fashion elegance for the respondents, although they are still used by almost one third of participants. The declarations of the respondents were similar in most of the points, but differences emerged as to the use of discussion forums and channels on YouTube. In the case of the younger and unmarried respondents, forums were used only by 46.6% of them, while for the older and married, this percentage was 74%. The reverse relationship occurred in the case of YouTube channels. Online discussion groups are used by more than 9 out of 10 dandies, while amongst non-dandies it is about 3 out of 5. This supports the claim that that Facebook groups, in particular, may constitute modern dandy clusters.

Although respondents are relatively eager to learn and take inspiration from other participants of e-communities, they are not too eager to actively participate in them themselves. Table 5 contains declarations on the level of activity in discussions on a scale ranging from 1 (does not participate at all) to 5 (participates very actively).

At most 8 out of 10 respondents were “moderately active” (answers 1–3). Notably, the older respondents as well as dandies were, on average, more willing to participate in discussions. Among the latter, the share of respondents declaring answers 4 or 5 was almost 35%, while for non-dandies it was around 13%.

On an annual basis, interviewees spend on average EUR 1,173 on elegant clothing, shoes, accessories and other related products, which was roughly close to the average monthly gross national salary in Poland at the time the study was conducted. However, the median salary was notably lower — EUR 682, with the dominant at EUR 455. The breakdown of the statistics is presented in Table 6.

Older respondents (with average earnings of EUR 1,792, as compared to EUR 618 for the younger ones) and married respondents could afford to spend more on clothing shopping. The case is similar when it comes to participants from larger cities, but in such a cross-section the dominant for residents of smaller towns was higher (EUR 682 against EUR 455). In general, however, in the sample the determinants of larger sums allocated to shopping were: older age, being married, living in a larger city and, naturally speaking, earnings above the average. This image differs in several points from the indicators of metrosexuality proposed in the literature. Given the average and the dominant of spending, there were no major differences between self-declared dandies and non-dandies. For the former, however, the dominant was significantly higher (EUR 1,136 against EUR 682) as was the standard deviation (EUR 2,297 against EUR 1,472). Figure 4 shows the box plots of annual expenditures of both of these groups.

While the first quartile and the median for both dandies and nondandies were more or less equal, the third quartile suggested a certain discrepancy. In the case of the dandies, Q3 was about EUR 1,150, whereas for the rest of the respondents it was around EUR 1,360.

The retail price of the most expensive item in the respondents’ wardrobe was on average slightly over EUR 500, with the median of EUR 364. The statistics broken down into research sections are presented in Table 7.

Older, married and respondents earning above average could afford to buy things about 2 times more expensive than the respondents with the opposite characteristics. The average for dandies was slightly lower than for non-dandies (EUR 472 vs. EUR 553), while the median was similar. In most cases, the most expensive thing in the respondents’ wardrobe was a suit (40% of respondents), for which the average purchase price was around EUR 580. Another 20% of respondents indicated shoes that cost an average of EUR 366, and 18% of respondents named a coat worth around EUR 500. Less than 9% of respondents named a blazer, with an average price of EUR 474.

The respondents were asked to indicate on a 7-point scale how closely in their opinion the currents of dandyism and metrosexuality are related, where 1 meant absolutely no relationship, while 7 — a very close relationship. Table 8 presents the results.

The responses were generally quite balanced, but suggested no close relationship: in general more than 70% of the respondents gave a score of at most 4 on the scale. The average of the declarations was 3.53, with the dominant and the median at the level of 3. A slightly closer relationship was indicated by younger and unmarried respondents, as well as those earning no more than the national average. More affluent respondents more clearly showed no relationship (mean 3.12 vs. 3.87 in the opposite cross-section). Self-declared dandies themselves also claimed to be somewhat more distinct: with an average of 3.24, no more than three-fourths of them gave a maximum score of 4. In the case of non-dandies, these figures were 3.65 and 67.7% respectively.

When asked to name the determinants or characteristics of a modernday dandy, the respondents most often indicated elegance in clothing and attachment to impeccable appearance. Their responses are visualized in Figure 5 in the form of a word cloud.

Notably, the responses did not mention at all the aspect of the philosophical foundation with which dandyism was originally associated. Currently, it seems to be solely reduced to an aesthetic domain, just one of many styles of dressing, or a set of certain personality traits. A modernday “dandy” is considered to be a man who dresses to impress and is especially fond of classic, elegant clothing. Attention to detail and high quality were also indicated, as well as a tendency to sometimes go a bit overboard (going to the extreme in terms of elegance, being overdressed for the occasion).

Conclusions

The Polish sympathizers of male elegance whom we surveyed generally proved to be generally young, well-educated and from larger cities. At the same time, they did exhibit significant income stratification. The respondents generally held professional positions that required elegant attire or were still university students (perhaps with aspirations to hold such positions in the future). At the same time, they claimed that their main reasons for choosing an elegant style were their own well?being, their sense of aesthetics and above all — their desire to project a professional self-image at work.

The gallant Polish men we surveyed focus mainly on so-called everyday elegance (smart casual), in which, on average, they generally have several years of dressing “experience”. However, there is no shortage of young people just starting out on their adventure with elegant dressing — they obtain the necessary knowledge for such a quest primarily from internet blogs and thematic discussion groups, pointing to the importance of opinion leaders within these e?communities. Despite their eagerness to draw upon the knowledge of others in this way, however, the respondents were not very keen to actively participate in such discussions themselves. Their annual budgets for elegant items of clothing fluctuated around EUR 1,200, which was about equivalent to the national average gross monthly salary in Poland at the time of study. In order to satisfy all their clothing needs, they have to ration their expenses, so that the most expensive items in their wardrobes (most often suits) generally cost around EUR 500.

Despite the fact that dandyism is described in the existing literature as a trend nearly vanished, nearly 30% of our respondents did indeed describe themselves as “dandies” (dandys in Polish). These participants relatively more often preferred business and formal style, as well as more often made use of thematic discussion groups, hence it may be expected that such e-communities are in fact contemporary “meeting places” for dandies. At the same time, self-declared “dandies” were somewhat more keen to participate in discussions there. It cannot be concluded that respondents considering themselves “dandies” had larger budgets for clothes — in fact quite the contrary, some statistics indicated a slightly lower level of their expenses. The self-declared dandies were amongst those most critical of the notion of a possible connection between “dandy” style and metrosexualism. However, the respondents as a whole did not rule out such a connection, indicating some existing similarities. It remains an open question to what extent contemporary dandies may actually be considered heirs to their nineteenth-century ideals, and not just sartorialists gravitating more towards mere hedonism in the domain of elegance.

In general, this study has a number of obvious limitations: above all, it was conducted on a non-representative sample, and thus the results presented should be analysed with caution. Nevertheless, we believe that the findings shed some new light on an under-researched segment of highend men elegant dressing. The authors encourage other researchers to participate in discussion on the subject and undertake further joint research in this area of study.

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W ekonomii pojęcie konsumpcji zrównoważonej jest już od pewnego czasu pojęciem znanym. Stanowi bowiem kluczową kategorię teorii użyteczności konsumenta. Jednak wobec lawinowego przyrostu ludności w skali globalnej i kurczenia się zasobów planety pojawia się problem długookresowej trwałości spożycia. Ważną kwestią jest także równowaga między możliwościami konsumpcji obecnego i przyszłych pokoleń, związana z kwestią ich dostępu do zasobów zużywanych i użytkowanych w procesach konsumpcji (Kiełczewski, 2007). Nie jest zatem dla nikogo zaskoczeniem, że w obecnym stuleciu zrównoważona konsumpcja, w tym również zrównoważona konsumpcja żywności, znalazła się w centrum zainteresowania ekonomistów.

Celem artykułu jest ukazanie stosunku konsumentów do koncepcji zrównoważonej konsumpcji żywności poprzez identyfikację ich zachowań na rynku i w gospodarstwach domowych. W pracy przyjęto założenie, że konsumenci odnoszą się pozytywnie do koncepcji zrównoważonej konsumpcji, kiedy działają na rynku i w swoich gospodarstwach domowych w sposób zrównoważony, czyli unikają nadmiernej konsumpcji, marnotrawstwa żywności, konsumują żywność ekologiczną i produkty etyczne, a także odpowiedzialnie dysponują zasobami (woda, energia elektryczna, gaz ziemny) oraz odpadami pokonsumpcyjnymi.

Artykuł ma charakter badawczy i zorganizowany jest w sposób następujący: w części drugiej przeprowadzony został krótki przegląd literatury pozwalający na zdefiniowanie kwestii zrównoważonego rozwoju oraz odniesienia jej do idei zrównoważonej konsumpcji i zachowań zrównoważonych. W części trzeciej opisano podstawy źródłowe artykułu oraz sposób przeprowadzenia badania i analiz danych. W części czwartej przedstawiono uzyskane rezultaty, odnosząc je do innych badań w tym obszarze. Artykuł kończy podsumowanie, w którym przedstawiono główne wnioski płynące z przeprowadzonych analiz. Opisano tam także ograniczenia opisanego badania.

Wnioski płynące z zaprezentowanego materiału nie wyczerpują w pełni podjętego tematu, mogą jednak stanowić głos w dyskusji nad rozwojem badań i analiz dotyczących postaw i zachowań konsumentów wobec idei zrównoważonej konsumpcji, a także nad strategiami marketingowymi przedsiębiorstw kierujących swoją ofertę żywnościową do współczesnych konsumentów.

Przegląd literatury

Traktując ekonomię jako naukę o racjonalnym dysponowaniu zasobami znajdującymi się w niedoborze i posiadającymi alternatywne wykorzystanie (Sowell, 2014), można zauważyć wzajemne powiązania zrównoważonej konsumpcji z ekonomią, a zwłaszcza z takimi jej subdyscyplinami jak ekonomia środowiska, ekonomia ekologiczna, sharing economy, a także z coraz wyraźniej krystalizującą się w okresie ostatnich dwudziestu lat ekonomią zrównoważonego rozwoju (Zalega, 2016; Zrałek, 2018). Widoczne są również wyraźne związki zrównoważonej konsumpcji z naukami o zarządzaniu, a zwłaszcza z marketingiem, w tym marketingiem zrównoważonym, ekologicznym i społecznym (Arunachalam i Kumar, 2018; Lutz i Newlands, 2018; Maciejewski, Mokrysz i Wróblewski, 2019).

Zrównoważona konsumpcja stanowi rdzeń definicji zrównoważonego rozwoju (Kramer, 2011), który w dokumentach ONZ (2019) jest opisywany jako rozwój, który zaspokaja podstawowe potrzeby wszystkich ludzi oraz zachowuje, chroni i przywraca zdrowie i integralność ekosystemu Ziemi bez przekraczania długoterminowych granic pojemności ekosystemu planety.

Fundament przedstawionej definicji stanowią dwa pojęcia: pojęcie potrzeb i pojęcie ograniczeń, narzuconych przez zdolność środowiska naturalnego do zaspokojenia potrzeb obecnych i przyszłych. Zrównoważona konsumpcja oznacza zatem takie wykorzystanie dóbr materialnych i usług, które pozwala zaspokoić podstawowe potrzeby i osiągnąć wyższą jakość życia, minimalizując przy tym zużycie zasobów naturalnych, toksycznych i szkodliwych dla środowiska materiałów, które powstają na wszystkich etapach produkcji, nie ograniczając jednocześnie praw następnych pokoleń do takiej konsumpcji (NME, 1994).

W świetle przyjętych definicji można wyodrębnić grupę zachowań konsumentów, które określa się mianem zrównoważonych. Zaobserwować można je zarówno na rynku, jak i w gospodarstwie domowym. Za Zrałek (2018) do rynkowych zachowań zrównoważonych należy zaliczyć nabywanie produktów ekologicznych, nabywanie produktów etycznych (odpowiedzialnych społecznie) oraz unikanie marnotrawstwa. Te ostatnie można także zaliczyć do zrównoważonych zachowań w gospodarstwie domowym.

Ponadto zrównoważone zachowania w gospodarstwie domowym to także zachowania dekonsumpcyjne, kolaboratywne (konsumpcja wspólna) oraz dysponowanie odpadami pokonsumpcyjnymi.

Konsumenci zachowujący się w sposób zrównoważony przyjmują pozytywne postawy wobec konsumpcji zrównoważonej i jej celów (Annunziata, Agovino i Mariani, 2019). Dlatego też ważne jest, by jak największy odsetek społeczeństw przyjął i zaczął realizować cele zrównoważonego rozwoju, mając świadomość, że Ziemia znajdująca się w ich rękach nie została odziedziczona po przodkach, tylko pożyczona od przyszłych pokoleń. Kwestia ta jest szczególnie istotna w sferze konsumpcji, w tym zwłaszcza w sferze konsumpcji żywności (Aertsens, Verbeke, Mondelaers i Van Huylenbroeck, 2009), gdzie z jednej strony występuje konsumpcjonizm, konsumpcja ostentacyjna i tony przeterminowanej i nieskonsumowanej żywności wyrzucanej na śmietniska bogatej Północy, a z drugiej — bieda i wielkie obszary głodu na biednym Południu. Z jednej — choroby cywilizacyjne, takie jak otyłość, cukrzyca wzrost zachorowań na nowotwory, z drugiej — niedożywienie, śmierć z wyczerpania i pragnienia.

Zrównoważona konsumpcja jako cel i warunek ekorozwoju jest i powinna być wzbogacana wiedzą o różnych jej aspektach (Gustavsen i Hegnes, 2020). Wciąż bowiem zarówno definicja, jak i elementy składowe tego pojęcia z naukowego punktu widzenia nie wydają się w pełni rozpoznane i kompletne.

Źródła i metody

Podstawę źródłową empirycznej części opracowania stanowią badania bezpośrednie, przeprowadzone w ramach projektu badawczego pt. „Zmiany modeli konsumpcji żywności w Polsce” realizowanego w Katedrze Rynku i Konsumpcji UE w Katowicach w latach 2018–2019 i finansowanego przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego. Część badań przeprowadzonych w ramach projektu dotyczyła identyfikacji zrównoważonych zachowań konsumentów obserwowanych na rynku żywności i w ich gospodarstwach domowych. Badania te wykonane zostały metodą ankiety, techniką ankiety rozdawanej. Pytania w kwestionariuszu zostały sformułowane w formie skal porządkowych, dwubiegunowych, siedmiostopniowych oraz skal przedziałowych. Oceny rzetelności użytych skal dokonano, obliczając dla nich współczynnik alfa Cronbacha i, jeśli przyjąć za dopuszczalny poziom współczynnika α > 0,7, to wykorzystane w badaniu skale można uznać za rzetelne (Henson, 2001).

Badania przeprowadzono wśród nielosowo dobranych osób reprezentujących swoje gospodarstwa domowe z województw mazowieckiego i śląskiego oraz ze Słowacji¹. Decyzja o wyborze nielosowego doboru do próby podyktowana była przede wszystkim brakiem odpowiedniego operatu losowania oraz koniecznością ograniczenia kosztów badań. Ograniczone środki finansowe determinowały także obszar prowadzonych badań. Do próby kwalifikowano osoby pełnoletnie, odpowiedzialne za dokonywanie zakupów żywności i przygotowanie posiłków. Były to w zdecydowanej większości kobiety — panie domu (82,2% polskich respondentów i 88,7% słowackich).

W wyniku przeprowadzonych badań oraz po weryfikacji formalnej otrzymanego materiału badawczego do analiz zakwalifikowano 900 w pełni poprawnie wypełnionych kwestionariuszy (po 300 z województw mazowieckiego i śląskiego i 300 ze Słowacji).

W próbie polskich konsumentów znaleźli się respondenci z różnolicznych gospodarstw domowych. Najczęściej były to gospodarstwa 4-osobowe (30,2%) oraz 2- i 3-osobowe (odpowiednio 20,7% i 20,8%). Stosunkowo mniej liczniej reprezentowane były gospodarstwa 1-osobowe (16,0%) oraz 5-osobowe i więcej (12,3%). W próbie przeważali konsumenci z miast (81,0%), wśród których najliczniejszą grupę stanowili badani z miast liczących powyżej 200 tys. mieszkańców. Konsumenci mieszkający na wsi stanowili 19,0% ankietowanych. Uczestnicy badania, zapytani o ocenę sytuacji materialnej swojego gospodarstwa domowego, najczęściej przyznawali, że jest ona dobra lub przeciętna (odpowiednio 47,5% i 34,5%).

Złą lub bardzo złą sytuację zadeklarowało 2,8%, natomiast bardzo dobrą — 15,2% badanych. Ankietowani w zdecydowanej większości legitymowali się wykształceniem średnim. Najmłodszy respondent liczył 19 lat, najstarszy — 82 lata. Mediana wieku pani domu wyniosła 45 lat, pana domu — 48 lat.

W próbie badanych ze Słowacji najwięcej było respondentów z gospodarstw 4-osbowych (27,8%) i 2-osobowych (26,1%). Niewiele mniej zaobserwowano także gospodarstw 3-osobowych (24,4%). Najmniej liczny odsetek w badanej próbie stanowiły osoby samotne oraz z gospodarstw 5-osobowych i więcej (odpowiednio 12,4% i 9,4%). W badanej próbie konsumenci mieszkający na wsi stanowili 18,4%. Pozostali zamieszkiwali miasta liczące do 50 tys. mieszkańców (27,1%), od 51 do 100 tys. (26,4%) i więcej niż 100 tys. mieszkańców (28,1%). Uczestnicy badania ze Słowacji, zapytani o ocenę sytuacji materialnej swojego gospodarstw domowego, najczęściej przyznawali, że jest ona dobra (48,8%) lub przeciętna (29,5%). Złą lub bardzo złą sytuację zadeklarowało 1,8%, natomiast bardzo dobrą — 20,4% badanych. Badani w większości legitymowali się wykształceniem średnim. Najmłodszy respondent liczył 21 lat, najstarszy — 89. Mediana wieku pani domu wyniosła 46 lat, pana domu — 48 lat.

W przeprowadzonym badaniu wykorzystano 12 zmiennych diagnostycznych, charakteryzujących zrównoważone zachowania konsumentów na rynku artykułów żywnościowych i w ich gospodarstwach domowych (tabele 1 i 2). Tworzyły one siedmiostopniową skalę porządkową, gdzie liczba –3 oznaczała odpowiedź „całkowicie się nie zgadzam”, a +3 odpowiedź „całkowicie się zgadzam”. Wartość alfa Cronbacha wyniosła 0,764 (wersja polska) oraz 0,811 (wersja słowacka), co świadczy o dobrym poziomie rzetelności zastosowanej skali.

Do opisu uzyskanych wyników badań, oprócz wskaźników struktury i miar położenia, wykorzystano test niezależności zmiennych χ2 Pearsona oraz współczynnik V Cramera. W obliczeniach wykorzystano program IBM SPSS Statistics 25.

Rezultaty i dyskusja wyników

Respondenci z polskich województw deklarowali podejmowanie zachowań, które należy uznać za umiarkowanie zrównoważone (Me = 1 w ośmiu na dwanaście analizowanych zachowań). Badani najczęściej deklarowali zrównoważone zachowania dekonsumpcyjne, czyli zakupy po uprzednim określeniu swoich potrzeb i zwracanie uwagi na termin przydatności do spożycia. Stosunkowo ważne było też dla nich odpowiednie dysponowanie odpadami pokonsumpcyjnymi, a więc sortowanie i recykling odpadów. Ankietowani na ogół uważają, że odżywiają się zdrowo, dlatego też najczęściej deklarowali brak zainteresowania poradami i zaleceniami dietetyków (tabela 1). Deklaracje takie nie powinny dziwić, patrząc choćby na wyniki lipcowych badań CBOS, według których 80% Polaków jest przekonana, że odżywia się zdrowo lub bardzo zdrowo (CBOS, 2019).

Niepokoić może natomiast stosunkowo niewielka świadomość badanych odnośnie do ograniczoności zasobów i konieczności racjonalnego wykorzystywania źródeł energii. Zaledwie 14,3% badanych w pełni zgadza się z koniecznością oszczędzania energii elektrycznej i gazu podczas przygotowania posiłków. Jeśli chodzi o oszczędzanie wody jest ich jeszcze mniej, bo zaledwie 13,5% (tabela 1).

Słowaccy badani również deklarowali podejmowanie umiarkowanie zrównoważonych zachowań. Najważniejsze akcenty postawione zostały na te same kwestie, które dominowały wśród polskich badanych: zwracanie uwagi na termin przydatności do spożycia, zastanawianie się przed zakupami, co jest naprawdę potrzebne, czy zwracanie uwagi na recykling i sortowanie odpadów. Podobnie też jak wśród polskich respondentów przeważa przekonanie, że w gospodarstwach domowych badanych przygotowuje się zdrowe posiłki, więc nie jest konieczne korzystanie z porad i zaleceń dietetyka. Z kolei deklaracje zachowań dotyczących ograniczania zużycia wody oraz energii są jeszcze rzadsze. Tylko 8,4% słowackich respondentów całkowicie zgadza się z koniecznością oszczędzania wody, a zaledwie 6,0 — energii elektrycznej i gazu (tabela 2).

Deklarowane zachowania polskich i słowackich konsumentów są podobne, podobny jest także poziom wydatków na żywność i napoje bezalkoholowe w tych krajach. Według danych Eurostatu w 2016 r. Słowacy wydali na żywność 1400 euro na osobę, Polacy zaś 1100; wydatki te stanowiły w ich budżecie odpowiednio 17,8% oraz 17,1% ogółu wydatków (Maciejewski, 2018).

Do kluczowych zachowań zrównoważonych w obszarze konsumpcji należy zaliczyć unikanie marnotrawstwa. Na problem wyrzucania żywności zwracano już niejednokrotnie uwagę (Dąbrowska i Janoś-Kresło, 2013; Śmiechowska, 2015). Uzyskane wyniki badań potwierdzają istnienie tego zjawiska wśród ankietowanych w obu krajach. Analizując deklaracje obu grup respondentów, można zauważyć, że żywność wyrzucana jest częściej w Polsce niż na Słowacji. Ważną kwestią staje się także uświadamianie mieszkańcom obu krajów konieczności zwracania uwagi na racjonalne korzystanie z zasobów takich jak woda, energia elektryczna czy gaz ziemny — tabele 1 i 2.

Wykorzystując test niezależności zmiennych χ2 Pearsona oraz współczynnik V Cramera do badania siły związku zmiennych, stwierdzono, że zmienne deskryptywne — takie jak wiek osoby odpowiedzialnej za zakupy żywności i jej przygotowanie, miejsce zamieszkania, sytuacja materialna czy liczba osób w gospodarstwie domowym — mają umiarkowany wpływ na podejmowanie zachowań zrównoważonych w gospodarstwach domowych ankietowanych (V < 0,3; p ≤ 0,1).

Podsumowanie

Podsumowując, warto zauważyć, że badani konsumenci deklarują podejmowanie zrównoważonych zachowań wobec konsumpcji żywności zarówno na rynku, jak i w swoich gospodarstwach domowych. Określić by je można mianem umiarkowanie zrównoważonych. Cieszy ich racjonalizowanie konsumpcji i troska o zdrowe odżywianie — niepokoi niska świadomość ograniczoności zasobów oraz ignorowanie problemu zużycia wody i gazu czy korzystania z energii elektrycznej, której wytwarzanie nie pozostaje bez wpływu na stan środowiska naturalnego.

Wciąż zatem dużo jest do zrobienia w zakresie promowania idei zrównoważonej konsumpcji, ale można już liczyć na dość liczny odsetek konsumentów świadomych, chcących działać na rzecz zrównoważonego rozwoju. Wskazują na to badania także innych autorów (m.in. Zrałek, 2018).

To ważny przekaz zarówno dla instytucji szukających wsparcia dla koncepcji zrównoważonego rozwoju wśród zwykłych mieszkańców Ziemi, jak i dla przedsiębiorstw, które w swoich strategiach marketingowych powinny brać coraz częściej pod uwagę cele związane z realizacją zrównoważonych wartości. Mogą się one przejawiać choćby w produkowaniu tylko zdrowej żywności dostarczanej na rynek w opakowaniach przyjaznych dla środowiska naturalnego czy propagowaniu zdrowiej diety.

Autor ma jednak pełną świadomość, że do zaprezentowanych wyników badań należy podchodzić z ostrożnością z uwagi na obciążenia błędem pomiaru, wynikającym przede wszystkim z nielosowego doboru próby, jej wielkości, jak też stosunkowo wąskiego obszaru prowadzonych badań. Autor ma jednak nadzieję, że choć w pewnym stopniu przyczynia się do podkreślenia wagi i znaczenia badań nad zrównoważonymi zachowaniami konsumentów i zrównoważoną konsumpcją.

Przypisy

¹ Autor chciałby w tym miejscu podziękować prof. dr hab. Irenie Ozimek z Katedry Polityki Europejskiej, Finansów Publicznych i Marketingu SGGW w Warszawie za pomoc merytoryczną i techniczną w przeprowadzeniu badania w województwie mazowieckim oraz doc. Ing. Pavolowi Kita z Katedry Marketingu Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Bratysławie za pomoc merytoryczną i techniczną w przeprowadzeniu badania na Słowacji oraz pomoc w tłumaczeniu kwestionariusza na język słowacki. Tłumaczenie kwestionariusza odbyło się zgodnie z zasadami ekwiwalencji badań międzynarodowych o czym piszą m.in. Jaciow (2018) i Barska (2019).

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