Today’s dynamic economic landscape is characterized by rapidly changing conditions that require companies to not only engage in continuous innovation to develop and refine tools for shaping their market positions, but also to define their own roles within the broader socio-economic context. Various challenges, including globalization, environmental degradation, significant social shifts, and heightened competition (Wołoszyn et al., 2012), are compelling modern enterprises to align their business strategies with stakeholder expectations, addressing both the external impacts of their activities and their responsibilities toward societal issues.

While the idea of taking such action gained significant social recognition only in the latter half of the last century, it is not new – it traces back to a 150-year-long debate on business values and ethics, originally focused on fair treatment of business partners, a commitment to philanthropy, and ensuring decent working and living conditions for employees. This debate intensified as businesses expanded, which in turn amplified their influence on overall social well-being (Baran, 2021). A critical aspect of this context was the growing criticism of corporations, as they stood increasingly accused of engaging in predatory and anti-social behaviors in pursuit of business gains, leading to economic instability and inefficient, environmentally damaging resource management.

Increasing social awareness (including consumerism, environmental movements, human rights movements, etc.) has led to the gradual development of a modern, broader understanding of corporate social responsibility (CSR), emphasizing the multifaceted impact of business activities on the social environment, as well as the importance of these actions in achieving the economic objectives of enterprises. Contemporary societies are increasingly unwilling to accept (let alone support) organizations whose goals are not aligned with (or even contradict) broader social interests.

The aim of this article is to explore the cognitive and behavioral attitudes toward corporate social responsibility among young Polish consumers representing Generation Z – a particularly interesting group, given that they are highly sensitive to the various social and environmental consequences of human activity (Zakusilo, 2021), while also being at the early stages of their adult lives. As such, their attitudes, preferences, and behaviors can be expected soon to play a critical role in shaping market landscapes and determining the success of businesses.

2. Corporate Social Rresponsibility (CSR)

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a management concept that takes into account the external effects of business activities – effects traditionally overlooked in economic calculations – particularly their impact on the natural and social environment. It also emphasizes the importance of transparency and ethical relationships with various stakeholder groups. At the foundation of this concept is the need to ensure the sustainable functioning of enterprises at the intersection of three spheres: economics, environmental care, and social development (Demkow & Sulich, 2017). As such, the CSR concept aligns with the current trends of increasing social awareness and heightened sensitivity to the negative non-economic aspects of business activities, such as environmental degradation, excessive exploitation of raw material resources, worker exploitation, and profit-making at the expense of local communities through practices like tax avoidance or not utilizing local suppliers and contractors.

It is important to note, however, a certain duality in the understanding of CSR. While the kinds of actions undertaken under the concept of CSR are universally recognized, the motivations understood to be lying behind these actions may vary. One approach stems from social contract theory, which posits that companies adopt responsible behavior out of moral and ethical considerations (Davis & Blomstrom, 1966), reflecting a duty to fulfill various obligations to society as a “corporate citizen” (Carroll, 1991). On the other hand, it is clear that all business activities are driven by commercial motives, with the primary purpose being to achieve economic outcomes. This perspective, rooted in shareholder theory, views CSR activities simply as a set of tools serving purely business objectives, such as shaping the organization’s image, strengthening its competitive position, and boost sales. At the same time, it acknowledges that the social environment sets the rules of the market game and conditions the achievement of these goals (Friedman, 2008; Kazojć, 2012).

This duality is not, of course, a simple dichotomy. Every business operates within a social environment – business decisions have consequences, including the generation of external effects that impact society. In turn, the social environment and public opinion significantly influence the scope of an enterprise’s ability to achieve its economic goals. This approach is conceptualized in stakeholder theory, which posits that a company should be oriented toward meeting the needs of all stakeholder groups (Freeman et al., 2004) – both those with whom the company has purely business relationships (and on whom it directly depends for achieving its economic goals) as well as those who directly or indirectly experience the external effects generated by the company’s activities and who constitute its social environment (Argandoña, 1998). Stakeholders include both internal groups (owners, shareholders, employees, management) and external groups (customers, suppliers, intermediaries, competitors, market institutions, government and local authorities, as well as social organizations, interest groups, local communities, and, ultimately, society at large) (Lozano et al., 2014).

The diversity of a company’s stakeholder groups, whose often differing interests must be considered when designing strategies, is reflected in the broad definition of the areas of action undertaken within the framework of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Carroll (1991) proposed to classify these actions into four areas – economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic – arranged in a hierarchical structure. In this model, economic aspects form the base of a pyramid, upon which the subsequent elements – law and ethics – are built, with philanthropy at the apex. Note, however, that the inclusion of philanthropy in this classification is debated, with some authors arguing that it should not be considered a component of corporate social responsibility (L’Etang, 1994). These areas often overlap and intersect, with CSR activities being classified as belonging to various combinations of these domains (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003). Other general classifications of CSR areas include R.W. Griffin’s (2004) concept, which identifies social welfare, the natural environment, and the needs of external stakeholders, or the triad model – focusing on the environment, economy, and society (He, 2018) – as well as a similar concept that highlights the environment, quality of life, and legal aspects as key CSR areas (Socorro-Marquez et al., 2023).

More detailed classifications, especially in relation to the practical aspects of business operations, are provided by international organizations. For instance, the OECD (2023) outlines CSR areas including information transparency, human rights, employee relations, the environment, anti-corruption, consumer interests, science and technology, competition, and taxation. Similarly, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines seven CSR areas in its ISO 26000 standard: organizational governance, human rights, labor practices, the environment, fair operating practices, consumer issues, and community involvement (PKN, 2012).

Incorporating CSR initiatives into business practices can offer companies a variety of benefits that indirectly boost their economic performance (Leoński, 2015). Among the most significant are image-related advantages, such as building social legitimacy (Du et al., 2012), cultivating trust (Crane, 2020), and fostering favorable attitudes (Hansen et al., 2011) among different stakeholder groups. These factors contribute to enhancing the organization’s social capital, which in turn facilitates easier access to valuable resources, collaboration opportunities, and the support of public institutions. Furthermore, and perhaps most critically, CSR activities can shape consumer behavior by influencing how they perceive products (Berens et al., 2005; Brown & Dacin, 1997), driving engagement (Agyei et al., 2021), encouraging purchase intent (Lee et al., 2013), and building loyalty (Howaniec, 2016) and satisfaction (Luo & Bhattacharya, 2006).

It is particularly important to highlight the significant impact of CSR on consumers. While meeting the needs of other stakeholder groups and maintaining good relationships with them lays the foundation for a potential competitive advantage, turning this potential into a real advantage depends on market validation, which is ultimately determined by consumers’ purchasing decisions. Given the growing sensitivity of modern societies – especially among younger generations – to issues related to sustainable social development, how consumers perceive corporate responsibility in this area is increasingly crucial for securing the desired economic benefits. In some cases, it is even a prerequisite necessary for market success.

3. Research methodology

To identify and analyze the attitudes, perceptions, and responses of young consumers toward various activities within the framework of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), we carried out a direct study using an online survey method, targeting a purposive-convenience sample of 94 individuals, in November 2023. Initially, 98 completed surveys were received, but 4 respondents were excluded from further analysis as they did not meet the age criterion (18–28 years).

The survey began with an explanation of the CSR concept and a description of the associated activities. The main section of the questionnaire included a series of statements designed to assess general cognitive attitudes toward CSR. Additionally, there were three groups of questions aimed at evaluating the impact of CSR activities in specific areas on: (1) the development of trust in the company, (2) the respondents’ willingness to support companies engaged in such activities, and (3) their willingness to pay higher prices for products from companies demonstrating social responsibility. The survey also included demographic questions and inquiries about the respondents’ views on the preferred model of socio-economic governance.

The questions were based on 7-point Likert scales with descriptive endpoints. For the question assessing general cognitive attitudes, the endpoints were “I disagree” (1) and “I agree” (7). For the question regarding trust in companies practicing CSR, the endpoints were “does not increase my trust in the company at all” (1) and “significantly increases my trust in the company” (7). For questions assessing the likelihood of the participant’s supporting CSR activities, the endpoints were “very unlikely” (1) and “very likely” (7). The question about the preferred model of socio-economic governance had endpoints described as “the well-being of society should be ensured by the state” (1) and “the well-being of society should be ensured by individual citizens’ own efforts” (7).

In analyzing the results, frequency distributions of responses and positional measures were used to characterize the distribution. Correlation coefficients, such as eta η (for nominal scales) and Spearman’s coefficient rho ρ (for ordinal and interval scales), were also employed to examine relationships between certain variables1.

4. Results

The first aspect to be examined was the general attitudes of respondents toward Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), including the perceived responsibilities of businesses in this area, the outcomes of CSR practices, and the balance of benefits between the organization and society.

The results (Table 1) show that the young Polish respondents surveyed generally had a positive view of CSR. The vast majority agreed with statements emphasizing the need for corporate social engagement, the benefits it provides, and the positive social perception of companies that implement CSR. The highest level of agreement was observed for statement T1, with 90% of respondents agreeing (most selecting the highest point on the scale – 7). Statements T2 and T3 also received strong agreement, with 81% and 79% of respondents in favor, respectively. For statements T5 and T6, over two-thirds of respondents agreed with them (69% and 67%, respectively).

However, attitudes were more mixed regarding statements that suggested CSR is more focused on achieving business goals than on serving the public interest (T4 and T7). For these statements, responses were more evenly distributed, with 42% of respondents agreeing with each, and a significant portion remaining neutral. These trends are also reflected in the average scores for each statement, with the first group of statements ranging from 5.0 (T6) to 5.89 (T1), while the second group slightly exceeded 4 (T4 – 4.12, T7 – 4.29).

The study also explored potential variations in attitudes based on demographic factors. A modest but noticeable correlation was found between participant gender and expressed attitudes expressed. The overall favorability index toward CSR (calculated as the mean of all responses, with statements T4 and T7 reverse-coded) showed a correlation with gender (η=0.355), with women more likely to express positive attitudes. The strongest gender-related correlations were observed for statements T5, T3, and T1.

No significant correlations were found between attitudes and other demographic characteristics. For income, the absolute value of Spearman’s coefficient ρ only exceeded 0.1 for statements T5 and T6. Regarding respondents’ views on the preferred socio-economic governance model (statism vs. liberalism), the correlation coefficients for statements T1, T5, and T6 did not exceed an absolute value of 0.2 in any case.

One of the significant outcomes of companies implementing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) strategies is building trust among stakeholders, including customers. In response to the general statement T5, the majority of respondents agreed with the view that companies practicing CSR are more trustworthy than those that do not.

To gain a more detailed understanding of this phenomenon, the study examined how companies’ activities in various CSR areas contribute to building trust among respondents (Table 2). An overwhelming majority of respondents indicated that a company’s involvement in socially responsible activities did enhance their trust – the percentage of ratings above the neutral position on the scale exceeded 80% in each area, with an average rating above 5. The variation in responses across different CSR areas was minimal; however, the actions of companies in areas directly affecting the respondents – such as fair relations with employees and customers – had a relatively stronger impact on trust (with average ratings in both cases exceeding 6). In contrast, corporate involvement in philanthropic activities had the weakest impact (average rating of 5.37).

The reported influence of CSR activities on trust in a company showed a moderate correlation with the respondents’ gender. For the overall indicator (the mean response to this question), the eta correlation coefficient was 0.255. The strongest correlations were observed in the areas of ecology (Z1, η=0.372) and philanthropy (Z4, η=0.345) – with women consistently indicating higher values on the scale. Similar to the previous question (regarding cognitive attitudes), respondents’ answers did not show a significant correlation with declared income or views on the preferred type of socio-economic order – the rho coefficient values slightly exceeded an absolute value of 0.1 only in the areas of Z1 (for income) and Z5 (for income and views on the preferred socio-economic order).

An undoubtedly important aspect of stakeholders’ (including customers’) attitudes towards companies engaging in socially responsible actions is their willingness to support and participate in the pro-social efforts of such companies. In this context, respondents were asked how likely they would be to support a company’s efforts by consciously purchasing its products, recommending them to friends, informing others about the company’s social involvement, or supporting social and charitable activities organized by the company (Table 3).

Similar to the question about building trust, the vast majority of respondents chose responses from the upper part of the scale – though both the percentages and the average scores were slightly lower than in the previous case. The highest level of declared support was noted for actions related to fair relations with customers (W6, 90% of responses above the neutral position, with an average score of 6.02) and employees (W5, with 85% and an average score of 5.75, respectively). The lowest support was recorded for the area of ethical practices in general business activities (W2, with 70% and an average score of 5.09, respectively).

As in the previous question, the overall index of declared support for companies engaging in CSR activities shows only a small correlation with respondents’ gender (η=0.219, with women once again choosing higher positions on the scale). Declarations regarding specific CSR areas showed a more noticeable correlation with gender in the case of ecology (W1, η=0.336) and philanthropic activities (W4, η=0.272). For the area of fair relations with customers (W6), there was also some correlation with respondents’ views on the preferred socio-economic order (ρ=0.274 – support was more frequently declared by proponents of a liberal option, similar to the case of W2, although with a much lower rho value). Regarding respondents’ income levels, rho values exceeding an absolute value of 0.1 were noted only in the areas of W3 and W6.

Given that the previous question addressed only general declarations of potential willingness to support a company due to its socially responsible actions (in an abstract sense, without considering the tangible costs of such involvement), we decided to further investigate how this support would manifest when material involvement is required – specifically, the willingness to pay a higher price (compared to competitors) for the company’s products due to its socially responsible actions (Table 4).

Unsurprisingly, in this case, the respondents’ declared willingness to engage is noticeably lower than in the previous, more general question – although a majority still express a willingness to provide material support to companies engaging in each of the indicated CSR areas. The areas of CSR activity that most motivated respondents to offer such support were fair relationships with customers (K6, with 82% of responses above the neutral point on the scale and an average of 5.46). Fair treatment of employees (K5) and environmental actions (K1) also received relatively high scores, with around 70% of responses above the neutral point and an average exceeding 5 in both cases.

The average value of responses across the scales for the various CSR areas, calculated similarly to the previous questions, showed a slight correlation with gender (η=0.252), but no correlation was observed with other analyzed parameters.

Regarding the specific CSR areas, it is noteworthy that there is a significantly higher likelihood reported by women regarding their purchasing of products at a higher price from companies engaged in environmental actions (K1) (η=0.444). In this area, 30% of women chose the highest position on the scale (7), while 27% of men selected the lowest positions (1 or 2). A similar, though slightly less pronounced, trend was observed in the case of corporate philanthropic activities (K4), where 25% of women selected the highest position on the scale, compared to 23% of men who chose the lowest position (η=0.320). The respondents’ answers did not show any significant correlations with other analyzed characteristics, such as income or views on the preferred socio-economic model. Absolute values of the rho coefficient ρ greater than 0.1 were noted only for the areas of K6, K2, and K1, depending on the respondents’ declared socio-economic views, and for K3, depending on respondents’ income levels.

5. Summary

The study clearly revealed a distinctively positive assessment of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) among the surveyed group. Young Polish consumers strongly recognize the general need for corporate social engagement, the benefits it brings, and the positive social perception of companies that implement CSR, while attributing significantly less importance to purely commercial (business) motivations behind such actions2.

The implementation of CSR strategies by companies significantly contributes to building trust in them. The CSR areas that most strongly influence trust among respondents are those that directly benefit the respondents – namely, fair relationships between companies and their customers and employees. In contrast, corporate involvement in philanthropic activities has a relatively smaller impact on trust.

A key aspect of stakeholders’ attitudes toward companies engaging in socially responsible actions is their willingness to support and participate in the pro-social efforts of such companies. In general, most respondents saw it as relatively highly likely that they would support companies that practice CSR by consciously purchasing and recommending their products to friends, informing others about the company’s social involvement, or supporting the company’s social initiatives. Similar to trust-building, the CSR areas most likely to engage respondents in this context are fair relationships with customers and employees. A slightly lower (though still relatively high) level of support was observed when respondents were asked about their willingness to financially “reward” companies for their socially responsible stance by paying a higher price for their products compared to competitors. In this scenario, in addition to the previously mentioned CSR areas (fair relationships with employees and customers), corporate involvement in environmental protection also emerged as a motivating factor for such behavior.

When analyzing the results of the study, it is important to note that women express more favorable attitudes towards the phenomenon of corporate social responsibility, as well as a somewhat stronger influence of the actions taken by companies within CSR on shaping trust and readiness to support socially responsible business activities (with women showing a clearer sensitivity than men, particularly towards actions in the areas of ecology and philanthropy). However, the study did not reveal significant differences in respondents’ attitudes based on other factors such as income or declared views on the preferred socio-economic model.

In summary, the findings from this study underscore a marked positive evaluation of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) among Polish Gen-Z consumers. This demographic places a strong emphasis on the necessity for businesses to engage in social issues, recognizing both the inherent benefits of CSR and the favorable public perception it fosters for companies that implement such practices. Notably, the commercial motivations behind these CSR activities seem to be of lesser importance to them. The areas of CSR that most significantly influence trust among these consumers are those that yield direct benefits – specifically, fair relations with customers and employees. This reflects a broader trend towards ethical consumption among younger consumers in Poland. Moreover, the findings indicate that young Polish consumers are not only aware of CSR but are also prepared to actively support companies that engage in responsible business practices. This willingness extends beyond mere approval; it influences their purchasing decisions, where they show a readiness to pay a premium for products from socially responsible firms. In particular, CSR efforts in environmental protection also emerged as a significant motivator for this demographic. Overall, the study findings indicate that it is crucial for businesses in Poland aiming to succeed in the shifting market landscape to acknowledge and cater to the heightened sensitivity of this young generation towards social and environmental impacts.

Given the limited scope of this empirical study, however, further research involving a larger and more diverse sample is essential to deepen the understanding of CSR perceptions among Gen-Z consumers in Poland (and elsewhere), which is vital for tailoring business strategies that align with their values and expectations.

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The increasing digitization of society, along with the dynamic expansion of the online realm, has profoundly influenced consumer behaviors – altering their perception of distance across space and time, enhancing the availability of goods and services (including new digital products), and reshaping communication in both personal life and business (Zalega, 2017). The term “virtualization” refers to the growing infusion of Internet technologies into socioeconomic life, accompanied by an increase in the number of users spending more time on various online activities (Grybś-Kabocik, 2017). Virtualization is linked to the rapid and extensive development of information and communication technologies, enabling the use of virtual solutions across economic, social, cultural, and educational sectors. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated organizations’ adoption of virtual solutions, seeking to mitigate or negate the adverse impacts of the pandemic restrictions, particularly the need for social distancing or outright bans on employee–customer interactions. Consequently, this hastened the pace and expanded the scope of consumer behavior virtualization. However, to what extent can these changes be expected to remain in force post-pandemic?

This paper is organized as follows: it first outlines the integration of digital solutions into various sectors, emphasizing the role of the COVID-19 pandemic in accelerating digital adoption and its implications for future service delivery and consumer engagement. Next, based on a literature review, it details the evolution of virtualization in consumer behavior across services, including gastronomy, tourism, cultural, educational, and medical sectors. The paper then reports and analyzes the results of an online survey regarding virtualized services in Poland during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

In the realm of service consumption, virtualization is reshaping existing consumer behaviors and fostering new ones. This primarily manifests itself as the individualization and democratization of cultural content consumption – consumers can freely select content according to their preferences, or even create it themselves. Other aspects include the merging of real and virtual lives, and shifts in the locations and timings for fulfilling needs – from institutions to homes, and at consumer-chosen times (Bywalec, 2010, pp. 223–226; Kowalska, 2015, pp. 65–66).

The virtualization of consumer behaviors involves satisfying needs via electronic communications, especially over the Internet (Grybś-Kabocik, 2017; Kowalska, 2015). Behaviors are increasingly being transferred to cyberspace, where they occur at times convenient for consumers. This includes using desktop computers, laptops, and mobile devices (smartphones, tablets) to access the Internet to search for ideas, gather inspiration, obtain information about services and their providers, check service availability and conditions, compare prices and offers, seek opinions from other consumers and experts, take advantage of promotional offers, and share feedback (Kucharska, 2015, pp. 40–45).

Information and communication technologies provide open access to extensive information about services and sometimes enable their remote consumption. Barriers existing in physical spaces, such as distance, travel difficulties, time constraints of travel and service hours, and occasionally psychological barriers (e.g., stemming from pressure by personnel providing services or handling customer service) are reduced or removed. The widespread adoption of the Internet has led to the erasure of traditional distinctions in the consumer’s life between day and night, weekdays and weekends, home and work, or leisure and labor (Urry, 2009, pp. 179–180).

Virtualization offers significant flexibility in content consumption. The online space enables consumers to share experiences, stimulating changes and fostering the adoption of new purchasing behaviors while displacing products that fail to meet consumer expectations. The Internet not only aids in organizing consumers’ daily lives by reducing mobility and communication barriers and providing easy access to offerings, but also influences the entire purchasing decision-making process, from need stimulation to post-purchase behaviors (Zalega, 2017).

The ongoing virtualization of consumer behaviors in the service market is shaped by numerous factors. Among these, technological factors are especially pivotal as they enable the use of service providers’ offerings online – this includes the widespread use of mobile apps without time or location restrictions, enhanced Internet connection quality, the use of GSM technology for online delivery tracking, and the improved quality of devices that facilitate the use of information and communications technology (ICT) solutions. Sociocultural changes also promote the virtualization of consumer behaviors; these encompass a fast-paced lifestyle combined with a scarcity of time, a preference for convenient and rapid satisfaction of needs, expectations for immediate problem resolution, and an increasing focus on home-centric living and “cocooning” (Strzębicki, 2020, pp. 59–71).

The expansion and intensification of virtualization in service-consumer behaviors is also driven by the rising importance of generations for whom the online environment is primary – mainly Generations Y, Z, and Alpha, who spend much of their lives in a seamlessly integrated offline and online world. Older generations, however, cannot be overlooked. The segment of individuals over 50 years old, the largest consumer group globally, is notably demanding, focusing on health, well-being, and appearance as they embrace a new life stage without adult children and pursue their own passions (Włodarczyk, 2022, p. 10). Technological advancements have impacted all consumer generations (Łopacińska, 2021, p. 37), evolving them from “naive” analog-era clients to well-informed consumers continually connected online. Depending on their needs and digital skill levels, consumers may find themselves at different stages of this evolution, potentially moving to higher levels (increased reliance on digital technologies and the Internet) or lower ones (reduced online activity). Notably, the analog-digital consumer (integrating daily activities online), the digital consumer (using the Internet as a primary environment for life and work), and the “comsumer” (a blend of “communicator” and “consumer”) are crucial in the virtualization of consumer behaviors (Kowalska, 2023, pp. 97–98).

The Internet not only enhances access to information about services but also creates new opportunities to utilize these services, such as eliminating intermediaries and personalizing services (Tarapata & Krzepicka, 2018, pp. 93–106). The broadening array of e-services enables a wider audience to access them, especially those facing restrictions or high costs in accessing physical services. Consumers can manage various aspects of their personal, professional, and household lives without leaving home, fulfilling needs privately that were once public, such as watching movies, theater performances, or concerts at home (Zalega, 2017).

Without a doubt, the COVID-19 pandemic significantly influenced the growth and scope of service-consumer behavior virtualization. It sped up the development and adoption of online service solutions and encouraged consumers to embrace these technologies more swiftly. Pandemic-related movement restrictions, social distancing requirements, and infection concerns particularly disrupted the service sector. Restrictions severely affected services requiring direct customer contact, such as healthcare, gastronomy, hospitality, tourism, transport, and cultural sectors. Additionally, the pandemic spurred the development of services reliant on modern information and computing technologies, leading to their virtualization. The demand for electronic services, such as e-commerce and remote education, increased. Opportunities for using services traditionally offered only in-person expanded to include virtual options (Dominiak, 2022, pp. 129–134).

According to expert forecasts (Deloitte, 2020), a number of factors may influence the future of the global economy and thus the development of services and the level of market entities’ virtualization behaviors in the post-pandemic reality – particularly those associated with new technologies (automation, digitization, cloud technology, technologization of healthcare) and social changes (a new generation of workers, crowdsourcing, sharing economy) (Pluta-Olearnik, 2021, p. 129).

The aim of this study is to investigate how the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the virtualization of consumer behaviors within the Polish service sector and to assess consumer attitudes towards ongoing virtual service delivery solutions in the post-pandemic era. This research focuses on identifying which virtual practices are likely to persist, examining sector-specific adoption trends, and understanding the broader implications of these shifts for future service delivery and consumer interaction.

2.Manifestations of consumer behavior virtualization with regard to select services

Initially, the virtualization of consumer behaviors in the service sector was limited to the ability to book appointments, place orders, and process payments online. Over time, as social media have evolved, new opportunities have arisen for sharing information and thus for delivering services in cyberspace. Today, consumers can access a wide range of services virtually, often with the assistance of virtual consultants (Ciechomski, 2023; Zacher, 2013, p. 19; Ahmed et al., 2018, pp. 3211–3213).

The degree of virtualization in consumer behaviors largely depends on the type of services and their specific characteristics. Certain virtual activities are common across many services, such as searching for a service and its availability, reading and writing reviews (particularly via platforms like social media, blogs, microblogs, forums, discussion groups, VoIP, audio/video podcasts), comparing prices and sales terms (using price-comparison aggregators, making online purchases, processing payments, or participating in customer satisfaction surveys). Consumer behaviors differ across various service markets, driven by the unique needs presented and, fundamentally, by the potential for virtual solutions to satisfy these needs. The broad range of virtualization strategies becomes apparent when one examines specific sectors such as gastronomy, tourism, medical, or cultural services (see Table 1).

The virtualization of consumer behavior is a very dynamic phenomenon – increasing the range of behaviors transferred from the physical world to the virtual world or parallel behaviors that occur simultaneously in both physical and online spaces. Today’s service consumer is, indeed, a hybrid suspended between the real and virtual worlds (Gardeła & Budzanowska, 2002, pp. 14-17) thanks to nearly unlimited access to the Internet, the growing scale of ownership of devices that access virtual space, and the ongoing development of mobile applications.

Virtual and augmented-reality technologies create a new space for service consumer behaviors, particularly influencing the decision-making process (especially in terms of generating needs and evaluating alternatives) (Berbeka, 2016, pp. 92-95). They allow for the creation of new experiences and impressions and provide new stimuli, primarily visual. Their usefulness is manifested in consumers’ ability to acquire knowledge (about services, their prices, places of provision), advice (what needs to be taken care of), and suggestions resulting from monitoring of consumers’ lives (reminders of important events). These utilities make consumers better informed, better educated, and increasingly inseparably connected to these solutions – increasingly “plugged into” them (Berbeka, 2016, p. 88).

The virtualization of consumer behavior is manifested by the mutual permeation (rather than opposition) of the virtual (digital) and real (material) worlds (Ritzer, 2014, pp. 3-24; Kaczorowska-Spychalska, 2018, p. 190). The physical world known to the consumer is extended to include new virtual elements (augmented reality), while the digital reality is embellished with physical attributes (augmented virtuality) (Jaremen et al., 2016, pp. 55-67; Li, 2023, pp. 265, 276). The observed integration of real and virtual solutions should allow for the creation of frictionless experiences in the process of meeting service consumers’ needs (Kotler & Stigliano, 2022). This process should proceed according to their expectations – efficiently, dynamically, and continuously (PwC, 2022; Nowoczesne technologie, 2021, p. 61). The cost of learning to use modern solutions must be proportional to the benefits that consumers derive from their use. Technologies can also increase the personal engagement of staff and consumers, thereby supporting the creation of unique, personalized shopping experiences (enhancing “high-touch” through “high-tech”).

2.Online survey

To identify selected changes in the virtualization of consumer behavior in the Polish service sector during the pandemic, we carried out an online survey. The choice of this technique was guided by its undeniable advantages (e.g., speed of information acquisition, reach), although its limitations were also taken into account, such as the declarative nature of respondents’ answers (Pacana et al., 2015). The study was conducted in November 2022 using the Ariadna National Research Panel, with a sample of 1,100 registered participants. The socio-demographic profile of the registered panel members closely matched that of Polish Internet users. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistical measures, employing IBM SPSS Statistics software.

The study was part of the research project entitled “COVID-19 Pandemic as a Catalyst for Change – Enterprise and Consumer Perspective”, conducted by the Department of Market and Consumption at the University of Economics in Katowice. The survey provided insights into:

• consumers’ opinions on the pandemic’s impact on various service sectors in Poland,
• solutions that consumers found helpful during the pandemic (mitigating/ alleviating pandemic-related difficulties) and their intentions to make use of these solutions in the future,
• opinions on the functioning of selected sectors after the introduction of pandemic-induced changes.

The study adopted the hypothesis that consumers highly valued the usefulness of virtual solutions in improving access to and use of services during the pandemic, but not all such conveniences would be eagerly used by consumers in the future (especially in the case of cultural services). We also assumed that the tourism, gastronomy, and cultural sectors were the most heavily impacted by the pandemic in this regard, but the solutions implemented by service companies to mitigate the negative effects of the pandemic helped maintain their operations at pre-pandemic levels.

The study sampled included 1,100 respondents, with almost equal numbers of women and men (Table 2). The sample included respondents evenly distributed across the age groups: 18–24, 25–39, 40–59, and 60–80 years (with 25% of respondents in each age group). Among the respondents, 46% had secondary education and nearly 40% had higher education, with primary education (4.1%) and vocational training (10.5%) being the least represented. Most respondents assessed their own financial situation as “adequate” (57%), with nearly 30% rating it as “very good” or “good”. Two-person households were the most common (33.4%), while households with five or more people were the least represented (11.5%).

The survey allowed us to identify consumers’ opinions on the impact of the pandemic on selected service sectors in Poland (Table 3). In the respondents’ view, the COVID-19 pandemic mainly entailed losses across all the sectors analyzed. The overall balance of benefits and losses caused by the pandemic in all the sectors studied was perceived as clearly negative by the respondents. Consumers believe that the pandemic particularly impacted the tourism, gastronomy, cultural, music, and fitness/spa sectors.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, companies implemented various solutions – some mandatory, others voluntary – aimed at helping consumers mitigate and alleviate pandemic-related challenges. These solutions primarily involved virtualizing access to and the use of the services analyzed. The results indicate that contactless use of parcel lockers and the ability to handle administrative matters online were seen by most respondents as effective in alleviating pandemic-related inconveniences. The majority of respondents also recognized that food delivery services to the home and “take-out” food orders, medical teleconsultations, and qualified electronic signatures had helped mitigate the difficulties of daily life during the pandemic. Fewer respondents, however, found virtual solutions such as online discos, video presentations of properties for purchase or rent, and streaming of theatrical performances or concerts to have been helpful during COVID-19 (Table 4).

It was also interesting to explore how eager consumers would be to continue using new solutions developed during the pandemic once “normalcy” returned. The survey results (Table 5) indicate that the largest shares of respondents intended to continue to use online services for handling administrative matters, qualified electronic signatures, food delivery services to the home and “take-out,” as well as medical teleconsultations. Half of all respondents expressed the intention to make use of identity verification with biometric techniques (e.g., fingerprints) after the pandemic. However, significantly fewer consumers planned to continue using virtual solutions in the areas of cultural and educational services post-pandemic.

The survey also attempted to answer the question of how much the new solutions, enforced and stimulated by the pandemic, have changed the functioning of the sectors examined (whether they improved or worsened) (Table 6). Consumer opinions in this area indicate that the measures taken during the pandemic helped maintain the operations of these sectors at pre-pandemic levels – this is particularly true for the fitness/spa, cultural, entertainment, music, and transportation sectors. In consumers’ perceptions, innovative solutions contributed to better functioning, especially in the gastronomy sector. Only in the case of the medical sector did the majority of respondents feel that the introduction of new solutions had worsened its functioning.

To address the question of how virtual solutions impacted the functioning of consumers and organizations during the pandemic, respondents were asked to express their opinions on selected statements related to this topic (Table 7). The vast majority of consumers acknowledged that the pandemic had led to the introduction of new solutions in commerce and services based on modern information technologies.

Most respondents also agreed that the pandemic increased consumer expectations for the option to have goods delivered to parcel lockers.

Additionally, the majority recognized that the COVID-19 situation enhanced consumers’ internet skills, such as online shopping, information searching, and handling administrative tasks. According to most respondents, the pandemic contributed to consumers adopting modern solutions in commerce and services. However, a smaller majority agreed that COVID-19 reduced the need for face-to-face interaction with sellers or service providers.

3. Summary

It is undeniable that the COVID-19 pandemic took everyone by surprise – consumers, households, as well as organizations, none of which had anticipated such a disruption in their operational plans. In this crisis, information and communication technologies (ICT) emerged as a crucial remedy, helping to mitigate the pandemic’s effects. The use of ICT increased on both the supply and demand sides. Virtualization became a key tool in alleviating the impact of pandemic-related restrictions, while also serving as a catalyst for changes driven by COVID-19, allowing operations to continue at levels close to those before the pandemic. Many of the conveniences introduced due to the pandemic are likely to persist in the “post-COVID” world. This paper has highlighted the pronounced shift towards virtual consumer behaviors in Poland’s service sector during the pandemic, with notable persistence in preferences for virtual interactions in administrative, food delivery, and telemedical services. These findings underscore the selective nature of consumer engagement with virtual solutions in the post-pandemic era.

The pandemic posed significant challenges for service providers, particularly due to the lack of physical interaction and the frequent need for direct involvement of staff and the physical presence of consumers. According to the survey respondents, COVID-19 caused losses across all the sectors analyzed, with the tourism, gastronomy, cultural, music, and fitness/spa sectors being the hardest hit. While the usefulness of virtual solutions during the pandemic is highly regarded by Polish consumers, not all of these solutions are expected to be used in the future, especially in the cultural sector. The measures taken during the pandemic did help maintain the functioning of sectors at pre-pandemic levels—this is particularly true for the fitness/spa, cultural, entertainment, music, and transportation sectors. In the gastronomy sector, these new solutions even contributed to better performance.

Service providers should consider these insights when designing their future service offerings. Given the selective continuation of virtual engagements, it is imperative for providers in cultural and gastronomic sectors to innovate and possibly hybridize their service delivery models to cater to the evolving preferences of consumers. The study also sheds light on the growing consumer expectations for seamless and flexible service interactions, whether virtual or physical. Providers need to strategize on how to blend these expectations into their operational models effectively.

The pandemic initiated and accelerated the adoption of new solutions in services and acted as a stimulus for implementing modern information technology solutions. It also led to an increase in consumers’ Internet skills (shopping, information searching, handling tasks) and encouraged the adoption of modern solutions in services. The pandemic accelerated the virtualization of consumer behavior in many services, and for most of the services studied, this process appears irreversible, particularly in light of ongoing technological and social changes. This presents significant challenges for service providers and institutions, both now and in the future.
Policymakers should consider these trends in virtual consumer behavior when formulating digital infrastructure policies, ensuring that the advancements in technology are equitably accessible and contribute positively to consumer experiences across all service sectors. Moreover, future research should explore the long-term impacts of pandemic-induced changes in consumer behavior, particularly analyzing the sustainability of these changes as technological advancements continue to evolve. It would also be beneficial to examine how different demographic segments adapt to and prefer various types of virtual services.

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The attitudes and behaviors of food consumers have changed significantly over the last decade or so, including a trend towards healthy eating and an interest in the influence of nutrients on general health, as well as in the prevention and treatment of existing diseases. As a consequence of these changes, foods with potentially beneficial effects on health and weight control have become more common (de Boer, 2021, pp.2).

The information on food packaging can encourage consumers to make healthier food choices, facilitate selection of portions adequate for their actual nutrition needs, and support their education in healthy eating. Unfortunately, reaping such benefits makes it difficult for them to navigate the food market, the quantity and variety of food products and the abundance of information contained on their labels. As a consequence, consumers focus their attention on simple messages (e.g. health and nutrition claims) that will help them find a product that stands out for its health or nutrition values. This approach may unfortunately lead them to make the wrong purchasing decisions. Claims are increasingly used to increase the purchase attractiveness of a product by food producers, who in many cases do not act honestly and mislead consumers (Davidović, et al., 2021, 1–2).

Ensuring that consumers can safely rely on the information on food packaging, as well as the highest quality and appropriateness of this information, is particularly important in the face of increasing obesity rates. By creating a friendly environment for consumers to make the right food choices, the epidemic of obesity and related diseases can be prevented and claims and other information on food packaging are a key element in this regard. For most consumers, they are the primary source of nutrition knowledge. Their role should be primarily to raise consumer awareness of the composition and properties of food products, and thus encourage their interest in healthy foods. In practice, however, buyers do not use them sufficiently due to difficulties in understanding them and the limited amount of time to make purchasing decisions (Oostenbach, Slits, Robinson & Sacks, 2019, pp.2).

The impact of nutrition claims on consumer purchasing intentions and dietary choices has been the subject of research by many authors (e.g.
Steinhauser, Janssen & Hamm, 2019, pp. 4–14; Steinhauser & Hamm, 2018, pp. 1–33; Lynam, McKevitt & Gibney, 2011, pp. 2–6; Annunziata & Mariani, 2019, pp. 3–13). However, there are few studies in which conclusions about attitudes and behaviors towards participants’ statements are compared to their objectively verified knowledge about this form of marketing communication. There is also a dearth of studies that compare how consumers’ perception of claims differs depending on whether they are placed on a product or are separate information.

Therefore, the main purposes of this paper are:

1. Identifying factors related to food consumers and producers that determine the effective influencing of claims on the perception of food products bearing them.
2. Finding factors that negatively affect the purchase intentions of products with claims.
3. Determining how claims affect the perception of products by consumers.
4. Seeing whether there is a correlation between consumers’ knowledge of claims and their attitude towards them.
5. Understanding the determinants of effectively encouraging consumers to make healthier food choices through claims.

The use of health and nutrition claims in the light of European food law

Health claims describe or indicate the health-promoting effects of a given product or its ingredients. In turn, a nutrition claim is defined as any claim made on the label of a food product that relates to its nutritional value. The content of both health and nutrition claims must be comprehensible and transparent to consumers so that their interpretation will be truthful. One condition for making claims in accordance with European Food Law is that they must not imply that other foods are less healthy or less nutritious. It is also forbidden to use claims that imply that the consumption of a given product is necessary to cover the need for all essential nutrients. It is important that the regulations concerning claims also apply to symbols, trademarks or even product names, which should be supplemented by permitted statements (de Boer, 2021, p. 3). In addition, claims include not only health or nutrition messages placed on food packaging, but also those used in marketing campaigns and other promotional activities (OJEU, L 404, 30.12.2006, pp. 9).

Food law regulations regarding claims may vary depending on the laws and regulations issued in a given country. However, in the case of countries belonging to the European Union (EU), for example, they must meet certain standards and requirements. These conditions are primarily used to protect the health of consumers, as well as to minimize their being misled by the dishonest actions of producers (Szymura, 2012, pp. 1–3). The European Union has undertaken to achieve these objectives by issuing Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims (OJEU, L 404, 30.12.2006). However, in 2008 it issued Regulation (EC) No 107/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods as regards the implementing powers conferred on the Commission (OJEU L 39, 13.2.2008, p. 8–10). In Europe, in addition to the regulations contained in this regulation, validation of claims by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is mandatory. Any claim that a given food producer wants to put on their product must indicate the nutrition or health properties supported by generally accepted, reliable scientific evidence (Szymecka-Wesołowska, 2011, pp. 21–22). Claims that pass EFSA verification are included in the publicly available list of approved claims. Currently, 30 nutrition claims listed in Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006 are allowed on the food market. Any nutrition claim that a manufacturer wants to include on the packaging of their product must have the same meaning as any of the claims contained in the regulation and must meet the relevant nutrition criteria. For example, a product can be labeled “a source of protein” or a statement with the same wording may be used on its label only if at least 12 % of its energy value comes from protein.

In addition to indicating the source of the nutrient, nutrition claims can be formulated using the words (OJEU, L 404, 30.12.2006, pp. 9–25):

• Low/very low content/value…;
• High in…;
• Without, without additive, there is no, does not contain…;
• Contains…;
• With increased/reduced content…;
• Light;
• Natural/naturally…;

Moving on to health claims, 4 main types can be distinguished (de Boer, 2021, pp. 5):

I. Functional claims based on generally accepted scientific evidence;
II. Functional claims based on newly developed scientific insights;
III. Claims relating to the reduction of a risk factor in the development of the disease;
IV. Statements relating to the growth and development of children.

Although there are only 4 types of these claims, the number of claims that currently exist on the food market is 265. Examples of health claims include: Zinc helps to maintain a proper acid-base balance or magnesium contributes to the maintenance of proper energy metabolism (O. J. EU, L 136, 25.05.2012, pp. 4–40).

The conditions of use and the system for validating claims were checked during the European Commission’s Regulatory Fitness and Performance Program (REFIT) from 2013 to 2020. One of the results of REFIT was that health and nutrition claims currently do not fully perform their role and new regulations are required to take into account the problems identified (de Boer, 2021, p.2). In addition, there are frequent cases of fraud involving use of statements that are inconsistent with the actual nutritional value or health properties of a given product (Lorenzoni, et al., 2019, pp. 3–12).

Existing research on food consumers’ understanding and use of claims

In a study conducted on a group of 100 participants from five European countries — Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Slovenia and the United Kingdom — it was examined whether and how food consumers understand selected health and nutrition claims. Out of these 100 participants, 51% declared that they use statements quite often or very often, on a daily basis.

Distinguishing between claims in terms of their types and meaning was not a problem for most participants in this study. The exceptions were statements with difficult vocabulary, such as, for example, one concerning homocysteine metabolism. Difficulties in understanding the statements also appeared when they referred to nutrients that are not very well known to participants or not very popular. Nutrition claims were rated more positively for affordability, but at the same time, the respondents believed that they should be supplemented with information on the health benefits of consuming the product. In addition, respondents expressed skepticism about nutrition claims indicating that the product is a meal replacement and those with reduced sugar and fat content. The statements were also considered by some respondents to be marketing tricks urging them to make larger purchases. The correct interpretation and positive perception of the claims in this study also depended on whether they related to health benefits or nutritional values that were important to the participants.

Another important finding of this work is that in several cases respondents over-interpreted the statements by assigning them meanings that they did not objectively indicate (Hodgkins, et al., 2019, pp. 7–24).

In another paper — a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies conducted in 2014–2017, the impact of food labeling on food purchases, consumer health and the activities of producers was examined. The overall conclusion of this paper is that food labeling has a beneficial effect on protecting the health of consumers. Food labels have been shown to reduce fat consumption and the overall energy value of the diet. In addition, they encourage more frequent consumption of vegetables. However, they still do not affect the consumption of salt, carbohydrates, protein, saturated fats, fruits or whole grains (Shangguan, et al., 2019, pp. 7–10).

However, there are also papers whose results indicate that claims induce consumers to consume excessively. This may be the case for individual nutrients when consumers mistakenly believe that the more they consume, the better for their health, or are unaware that they are already consuming the ingredient in excess. It also happens that statements are not precise, which leads them to be misunderstood. This is so, for example, in the case of the statement “provides energy”, which only states that the product is not calorie-free (and often that it is high-calorie), but for some consumers this message may mean that the consumption of the product will have a stimulating effect on them (Chandon & Wansink, 2012, pp. 8).

Misinterpretation is also common in the case of claims regarding the content of a particular nutrient. This is mainly the case when the consumer judges the product based on the claim itself without analyzing the nutrition table or ingredient list. This is a particularly harmful approach, as the claims only draw attention to healthy ingredients, thereby diverting it from those that are dangerous to health. The same is true when the claim concerns the reduction of the risk of disease by consuming a particular product, while this product at the same time contains ingredients that increase this risk. An equally important problem for consumers is the so-called “Halo effect”, which in relation to products with claims refers to the phenomenon of attributing qualities to them that they do not have.

However, there is no doubt that not only consumers are to blame, but also producers who are fully aware of the presence and operation of these mechanisms (Talati, et al., 2017, pp.2).

Survey methodology — examining awareness and perception of claims among consumers

In the period from 20.04.2021 to 04.05.2021, a questionnaire with elements of experimental measurement was carried out. The study used the CAWI method using Google’s web forms. The selection of the sample was purposive and was performed using the “snowball sampling” method.

The sample consisted of 200 respondents of Polish nationality. The individual characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 1.

In the initial questions in the survey, participants rated a food product presented to them in pictures, which contained various configurations of claims on their packaging. This section of the form was the only one that varied for individual participants. By sending the appropriate versions of the form, the respondents were divided into 4 groups of 50 people. Group 1 received a form with pictures of products bearing nutrition claims (NC), group 2 with health claims (HC), group 3 with both types of claims (NHC), and group 4 with pictures of products without claims, as the control group (C). The other packaging elements of the products presented in the pictures for all groups were identical and did not contain any advertising slogans, trademarks or names of manufacturers.

The evaluation criteria were:

• Health;
• Caloric value;
• Taste;
• The reliability of the information on the label;
• Willingness to purchase;
• Willingness to consume.

The rating scale was from 1 to 5. The ratings in each group were added up and then the average was drawn from them.

The next questions concerned the degree of interest in healthy eating and the information on food labels, as well as the level of respondents’
practical and theoretical knowledge about claims. This made it possible to explore the standard of knowledge concerning food law among the respondents, as well as to discover how this translates into the ability to interpret claims.

The study also examined the interpretation of claims as separate messages not appearing on a specific product. Participants were asked to choose answers in the form of sentences that most accurately describe their feelings about a specific health or nutrition claim presented to them. For statements, any number of responses could be selected from:

1. It is worth buying this product;
2. The information is reliable for me;
3. The information is understandable to me;
4. This product is healthy;
5. This product does not taste good;
6. The information encourages the consumption of the product.

The survey form was completed by collecting basic data on respondents, such as age, education, financial situation and health status, which are of great importance for making food choices and purchasing decisions.

To ensure the reliability of the results, the collected data were subjected to statistical tests. Statistical analysis was based, inter alia, on the Pearson correlation test or Student’s t test for two averages.

Results

The findings of the study are listed in the Tables and Charts below. The differences in the assessment of the products depending on the claims made on them were statistically insignificant. However, for some products, the impact of the claims on the participants’ product assessment was particularly evident:

83% of the sample rated their level of interest in healthy eating as medium and 20% as very high. The most important information for the respondents on food labels turned out to be: use-by date, the price of the product and nutrition information on the back of the packaging, such as the nutrition table or composition. Right behind them were: markings and information contained on the front of the pack.

29% of respondents stated they always pay attention to the detailed information presented on the packaging of food products, 41% that they do so usually, while only 4% that they never do so.

Slightly more than half of the participants could not point out the difference between a nutrition claim and a health claim, while the vast majority did not know what the real meaning of individual nutrition claims was.

It was also noted that respondents were skeptical of health-related information on food packaging. 36%, which is the largest proportion, believed that placing such information on the label is regulated by law, but the rules are often violated by manufacturers.
Statements presented as separate messages were most often associated by respondents with a healthy product, and the least often indicated to them that the product does not taste good.

Conclusions

The results of this study show that the impact of the claim on the perception of the health benefits of the product by consumers is strongly dependent on the specific product being assessed. The credibility and significance of the statement for the consumer may be limited by their previous prejudices. Therefore, the inclusion of a claim on a product should be preceded by promotional activities aimed at increasing the perception of its attractiveness by consumers.

The study also showed that the presence of claims affects the deterioration of the perception of the palatability of products considered to be the least healthy.

A significant percentage of the respondents declared that when shopping they pay attention not only to the front of the product packaging, but also to the back. Taking into account the fact that nutrition claims are usually found on the front of the packaging, while health claims on the back, it can be concluded that using both types of claims on labels may be more effective in promoting health than using only one type. Furthermore, based on the results of this work, it can be concluded that consumers now clearly expect information on labels detailing the health effects of a nutrient, so using nutrition claims alone will become increasingly unsatisfactory for them.

Consumers are actually more likely to analyze food labels. This is an important result for food producers, which suggests that they should pay particular attention to the appropriateness of the information provided on the product packaging. Clarifying the content of labels for a thorough analysis may be related to another phenomenon that has been demonstrated in this paper, namely that consumers show a low level of confidence in the credibility of statements. The study did not show that consumer distrust of the credibility of claims was correlated with low levels of knowledge about them.

Based on the respondents’ answers, it cannot be concluded that the presence of the claims meant that the product was seen as less caloric. It seems, therefore, that consumers’ awareness of the processes of maintaining and achieving a healthy body weight has increased significantly. However, it is important that participants reported a relatively high level of knowledge of healthy eating in this study.

Another conclusion is that greater interest in healthy eating does not translate into the ability to correctly interpret statements. The respondents had severe problems in indicating what specific and actually existing health and nutrition claims mean. Therefore, it can be concluded that educating consumers on healthy eating does not increase their ability to use claims and solutions are needed to help raise public awareness of the legal aspects of food labeling.

Limitations and future research

Only Polish food consumers took part in the study, most of whom were healthy women with higher education and declaring a good financial situation. The majority of respondents declared a high level of interest in healthy eating, as well as rating the quality of their diet as good or average.

Therefore, the results may have been significantly different if the survey had been conducted on respondents with other individual characteristics.

Moreover, it also unclear how the results of this study translate into food purchases in real-world shop conditions. There is a need for research involving larger and more diverse groups of consumers that reflect the real circumstances of food shopping to a greater extent.

References

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3. Davidović, D., Paunović, K., Zarić, D., Jovanović, A., Vasiljević, N., Stošović, D., & Tomanić, M. (2021). Nutrition and Health Claims Spectra of Pre-Packaged Foods on Serbian Supermarket Shelves: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 13(8), 2832.
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4. De Boer, A. (2021). Fifteen Years of Regulating Nutrition and Health Claims in Europe: The Past, the Present and the Future. Nutrients, 13(5), 1725. doi:10.3390/nu13051725
5. Hodgkins, C., E., Egan, B., Peacock, M., Klepacz, N., Miklavec, K., Pravst, I., … Raats, M., M. (2019). Understanding How Consumers Categorise Health Related Claims on Foods: A Consumer-Derived Typology of Health-Related Claims. Nutrients, 11(3), 539.
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6. Lorenzoni, G., Minto, C., Temporin, M., Fusca, E., Bolzon, A., Piras, G., … Gregori, D. (2019). (Ab)use of Health Claims in Websites: The Case of Italian Bottled Waters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(17), 3077. doi:10.3390/ijerph16173077
7. Lynam, A., McKevitt, A., & Gibney, M. (2011). Irish consumers’ use and perception of nutrition and health claims. Public Health Nutrition, 14(12), 2213–2219. doi:10.1017/S1368980011000723
8. Oostenbach, L. H., Slits, E., Robinson, E., & Sacks, G. (2019). Systematic review of the impact of nutrition claims related to fat, sugar and energy content on food choices and energy intake. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1296. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7622-3
9. Regulation (EC) No 107/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 amending Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods as regards the implementing powers conferred on the Commission.
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Changes in the lifestyle of inhabitants, economic issues, and the growing importance of environmental issues in consumer choices are redefining mobility patterns in cities (Aguilera-García et al., 2019). For many years, changes in access to various forms of urban transport that are assumed to be consistent with the concept of sustainable development have been observed. An increasingly common trend around the world (including Poland) is the growing importance of low-emission transport and the introduction of short-term rental systems of bicycles, electric cars, e-scooters and moped e-scooters (Sojkin & Michalak, 2019). The shift from “ownership” to “usership” — using resources made available “on demand” or sharing them with others — observed on the mobility market is a response to the negative consequences caused by mass motorization and the rapid increase of the number of private vehicles (Jurczak, 2019; Machado et al., 2018). Despite the increasing development of electric moped scooter sharing services/systems, the subject literature includes far fewer studies on the conditions of their use than in the case of other “sharing” services/systems (Aguilera-García et al., 2021; Bieliński & Ważna, 2020; Eccarius & Lu, 2018, Wortmann et al., 2021). On a dynamically changing market of transport services, understanding the mobility patterns of inhabitants is crucial for urban planners, administrators and transport service providers in order to adapt their services to the evolving needs of consumers (Aguilera-García et al., 2019). The main aim of this paper is to identify and assess the motives for and barriers to the use of electric moped scooter sharing services among the inhabitants of selected Polish cities and to define the main travel destinations using this form of transport.

Electric moped scooter sharing services as a form of shared micro-mobility

In recent years, a certain evolution of the transport services market has been observed, within which two main trends should be noted — shared mobility and electrification (Liao & Correia, 2020). Among the forms of shared mobility, there are services related to shared micro-mobility, which is considered an innovative and “green” form of transport (Flores & Jansson, 2021). Micro-mobility is an innovative urban transport solution and relates to trips over a shorter distance for personal transport by using low-speed modes of transportation e.g., bike, scooter/e-scooter, moped e-scooter, Segway, etc. (Lee et al., 2021; Eccarius & Lu, 2020; Mitra & Hess, 2020). The essence of shared micro-mobility is the temporary use of goods and services by consumers without having to own them (Machado et al., 2018). The use of shared micro-mobility services by consumers may contribute to reducing the problems faced by the authorities and inhabitants of many cities, e.g. excessive transport costs, traffic jams, air pollution, shortage of (parking) spaces and noise (Bieliński & Ważna, 2020; Zhu et al., 2020). One of the results of the acceptance of this innovative form of urban transport may be a change in inhabitants’ attitudes towards the necessity for private vehicle ownership and thus the inhibition of mass motorization and a reduction in the number of private cars (Abduljabbar et al., 2021). It should be noted that the rapid increase in the popularity of shared micro-mobility services was and still is a certain challenge for city authorities and public administration, e.g. in terms of appropriate legal regulations regarding the use of various forms of micro-mobility, the issue of adapting transport infrastructure, and ensuring the safety of pedestrians who are at risk of being hit by users of micro-mobility modes (Milakis et al., 2020; Reck & Axhausen, 2021). In addition, attention is also drawn to the fact that rare metals as well as fossil fuel energy are used in the production of batteries to power micro-mobility electric modes (Milakis et al., 2020).
The motives for and barriers to using particular forms of micro-mobility differ from each other. For example, in the case of bike-sharing, the top facilitators to bikeshare use among users were: convenience, easy access to bikes, health benefits, economics benefits and fun/new experience. The top reported barriers were: no helmet, trouble with renting/returning, traffic safety concerns, bad weather and inconvenient stations (Franckle et al., 2020). On the other hand, the main benefits associated with the use of e-scooters by regular users in the USA include: they are faster than walking, they are convenient, they can be fun/relaxing, they are better in hot weather than walking and they allow users to reach places without the need to drive e.g. by car), are inexpensive to use, good for the environment or that users feel safer when using them (less likely to commit a crime on them). The main barriers to using e-scooters are related to safety concerns (e.g. hitting someone or being hit by someone, not enough safe places to ride, feeling unsteady / worrying about falling off), practicality-related barriers (e.g. no space for carrying luggage or transport other people, impractical for longer distances) and equipment-related barriers (e.g.
broken e-scooters, trouble finding one when needed, battery not always charged, worrying that equipment will break / malfunction (Sanders et al., 2020). The main reasons for using e-scooters in Taiwan were primarily environmental issues, as well as convenience, the ability to access without owning, saving money, flexibility and pricing. The main barriers to the use of e-scooters were concerns about their condition (cleanliness, technical condition), availability / distance to the next e-scooter, price, helmet hygiene, and vehicle speed (Eccarius & Lu, 2018).

Despite the fact that the availability and popularity of electric moped scooter sharing services is growing rapidly in Europe (Wortmann et al., 2021), in the literature on the subject, there are few studies on the motives for and barriers to using this micro-mobility mode. The main reasons for using a moped scooter-sharing system listed by Spanish consumers were: the benefits of easily parking the moped, flexibility mobility/avoiding traffic jams, a well-functioning system, competitive pricing and environmental awareness (Aguilera-García et al., 2021).
It should be borne in mind that the use of various modern urban mobility systems is possible after meeting certain criteria for a given form, e.g. in the case of bike-sharing in Poznań — people under the age of 13 may use bikes only under the care of a parent or legal guardian, for people from 10 to 18 years of age to drive an electric scooter, it is required to have the same qualifications as for cycling, i.e. a bicycle card or driving license of categories AM, A1, B1 or T, in the case of car-sharing it is obligatory to have driving license, and in the case of moped e-scooters legal age and the use of a helmet are required.

Research design

An empirical study verifying the motives, barriers and goals of using electric moped scooter sharing services was conducted in cooperation with Blinkee1 in the first half of 2021 using the online survey technique in Google Forms. The areas of empirical research included the following scopes:

a) subjective — electric moped scooter users (having an active account in the application, regardless of the frequency of using the moped scooters),
b) subject — frequency of using the selected form of urban transportation, motives, barriers and goals of using city electric moped scooter sharing services,
c) spatial — selected voivodeship capital cities of Poland: Białystok, Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Gdynia, Katowice, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Warsaw and Wrocław,
d) temporary — first half of 2021.

The size of the research sample was 352 observations (N = 352). In the process of selecting the research sample, purposive selection was used, where the basic criterion was to have an active account in the Blinkee application for renting electric moped scooters. The analysis of the empirical data obtained was carried out using the IBM SPSS Statistics program — the response distribution indicators, statistical description indicators were calculated, and selected methods of analysis of variance and the method of exploratory factor analysis were used.
The research sample was dominated mainly by men (93.5% of all respondents) and people aged 25–34 (42.6% of all respondents), with higher education (64.8% of all respondents), with a material status above national average (52.6% of all respondents). The structure of the research sample, taking into account selected characteristics of the respondents, is presented in the table below (Tab. 1).

In assessing the motives for electric moped scooter sharing services, 17 factors were verified (tab. 2). The significance of the selected motifs was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, on which the values were scaled from 1 — definitely not, to 5 — definitely yes. For the purposes of the study, it was assumed that the distances between the categories on the Likert scale are equal. Such an assumption is common in the social sciences and allows the use of parametric tests. The analysis of mean values allows the most and least important motives from the perspective of the respondents to be identified. The set of the most important motives included the flexibility of using moped e-scooters (mean7 = 4.19), making it easier to travel (mean8 = = 4.17), the possibility of reaching the destination point directly (mean11 = = 4.05), independence from public transport (mean16 = 3.91) and time savings compared to the use of other forms of urban mobility (mean17 = 3.86).

The average significance of all the identified motives for using electric moped scooter sharing services is presented in the table below (Tab. 2).

Additionally, the significance of the selected motives for using electric moped scooter sharing services was compared between the two groups of respondents — the first group includes respondents who do not use moped e-scooters or use moped e-scooters very rarely (less than once a month), while the second group includes respondents who declare more frequent use of moped e-scooters. The results obtained clearly indicate the higher importance of the surveyed motives in the group of respondents who use electric moped scooter sharing services at least once a month — the only motive, the importance of which is similar in both groups of the respondents, is the lack of the need to incur additional costs of parking in the city (mean4_N ≈ mean4_Y — Tab. 2).

The next step in the research procedure was to assess the importance of barriers to using electric moped scooter sharing services (the relevant data presented in Tab. 3). The significance of these examined barriers was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale, on which the values were scaled from 1 — definitely no, to 5 — definitely yes. In the context of barriers to using moped e-scooters, respondents primarily focused on the availability of scooters in places where they would like to use them (mean4 = 3.89), weather conditions (mean5 = 3.84), travel price (mean6 = = 3.36) and the concern about the cleanliness and hygiene of scooters (mean8 = 3.11).

The comparison of the significance of the identified barriers between the groups of respondents (not using or rarely using and using moped e-scooters at least once a month) allowed for the identification of only a few statistically significant differences — in the group of active scooter users, the number of scooters in places where they can be used (mean4_N < < mean4_Y) and the battery level in the scooter (mean14_N < mean14_Y) are more important, while in the group of people who do not or occasionally use moped e-scooters, preferences regarding other forms of urban transportation (mean9_N > mean9_Y) and difficulties in driving and using scooters (mean12_N > mean12_Y) are more important.

In the next step of the research procedure, based on the frequency of using electric moped scooter sharing services, the significance of the purposes of their rental was verified (data presented in Tab. 4). The assessment was made using a 5-point Likert scale, on which the values were scaled from 1 — not at all or very rarely (less frequently than once a month), to 5 — very often (every day or almost every day). The mean values obtained (mean values ≤ ≤ 2.33) indicate a relatively rare use of this method of urban transportation — the key importance in this context seems to be the time of the study coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic and the related remote work and teaching at all levels of education. Nevertheless, the results indicate that the use of electric moped scooter sharing services occurs most often when dealing with various matters (mean6 = 2.33), traveling to or from a place where you spend your free time (mean7 = 2.22), restaurants or cafes (mean9 = 2.09), cinema, theatre, opera or concert (mean8 = 2.07). It is relatively popular to use this micro-mobility urban transportation mode when “driving” (mean11 = = 2.06) and visiting family or friends (mean5 = 2.04).

The comparison of the average importance of the purposes of using electric moped scooter sharing services between groups of respondents who rarely or occasionally, or at least once a month, use this form of urban transportation clearly indicates a greater role played by all the goals studied in the group of active users. Such an assessment, despite the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, may indicate the purposefulness of the development of this micro-mobility form of urban transportation.
In the last step of the research procedure, the original sets of measurable variables (motives, barriers and purposes of using electric moped scooter sharing services) were reduced using the exploratory factor analysis method — this allowed the original sets to be reduced, including 17 variables to 5 components in the case of motives, in the case of barriers, 17 variables to 3 components, while for the purposes of using scooters, 11 variables to 2 components2. A semantic interpretation was given to new components (results presented in Tab. 5).

As in the case of measurable variables, the average values of the newly distinguished components were compared between the group of respondents who do not use scooters or use moped e-scooters very rarely (less than once a month) and the group declaring more frequent use of electric moped scooters (Tab. 6).

The analysis of the results confirms the regularities identified at the stage of the results analysis in terms of directly observable variables. The most important reasons for using the electric moped scooter sharing services included the convenience of this mobility mode (mean = 3.97) and no city parking costs (mean = 3.38). The biggest barriers to choosing this micro-mobility mode for Polish consumers were those related to the safety of use (mean = 2.83). The comparison of the mean values of the components between the groups of respondents surveyed indicates the greater importance of the motives and goals of using electric moped scooter sharing services in the group of respondents using them at least once a month. On the other hand, the analysis of the significance of the barriers did not allow the identification of statistically significant differences between the surveyed groups of respondents — the absence of differences in this respect may indicate the need to emphasize the advantages (motives) of using moped e-scooters as the basic determinants that can increase the popularity of this method of urban transportation.

Summary

The analysis of the results shows that there are specific challenges faced by administrators of electric moped scooter sharing services. In this context, the most important thing is to identify the most attractive routes for moped e-scooter users, which should ensure the availability of scooters and minimize the costs associated with their possible logistics to these places. This is confirmed by the analysis of the purposes of using electric moped scooters, which indicates the informal nature of scooter trips. At this point, however, attention should be paid to the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, which certainly influenced the way a typical work or study day was organized by residents of large cities.

The analysis of barriers, in turn, indicates the occurrence of concerns related primarily to the safety of use, the availability of moped e-scooters and weather conditions. The last of these barriers indicates fluctuations in the demand for this micro-mobility mode, both irregular (e.g. rainfall in summer) and seasonal (e.g. low temperatures in late autumn and early spring), which certainly translates into economic calculations for the businesses providing the infrastructure of electric moped scooters.

The analysis of the importance of the goals of using electric moped scooter sharing services shows the potential for the development of the scooter market in large cities in Poland — this is indicated by higher average values in terms of goals of using scooters in the group of people using electric moped scooter sharing services at least once a month. The relatively low average values in the assessment of the goals of using scooters indicate the need to emphasize the advantages and minimize the significance of the identified barriers to using scooters identified in the groups of current and potential users — this should allow for a growing substitution in comparison with other forms of mobility in large cities.

Limitations and future research directions

It should be noted that due to the lack of a large number of studies on the determinants and scope of use of moped e-scooters by consumers,
future studies should be conducted to advance knowledge on the topic and fill the research gap. Future research topics could focus on identification of a potential relationship between user experience and willingness to use electric moped scooter sharing services in the future. A certain limitation of the research carried out for the purpose of writing this paper is the spatialsubjective scope covering only Polish consumers, hence an interesting idea would be comparative research in other countries. Cross-Country comparative research could identify differences in consumer behavior between users in different countries. Due to the selection sampling method and the size of the research sample, the results are not representative of the entire population of Polish electric moped scooter sharing services users. It should also be remembered that the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, so it is worth comparing the behavior of consumers regarding the use of electric moped scooter sharing services during and after the pandemic.

Endnotes

1 Blinkee is the leader of electric moped scooter sharing market in Poland. The company has over half a million registered users in Poland and its portfolio also includes other micro-mobility modes.
2 The minimum values of the factor loadings were set at the level of 0.6.

References

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The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that one third of the world’s food production ends up lost or wasted, which corresponds to 1.3 billion metric tons (FAO, 2019). The problem of food wastage occurs at all stages of the food supply chain, but the share varies in particular countries and depends on the GDP per capita. Decreasing the amount of edible food, mainly at the production stage, is characteristic of low-income countries, while developing countries struggle with the lack of technical facilities related to transportation and storage, as well as with low consumer awareness at the stage of handling and preparation of foodstuffs (Parfitt et al., 2010). These situations refer to what is called “food loss”. In developed countries, food is lost mainly at retail and consumer levels, which is considered “food waste” (FAO, 2019). In the European Union countries, the sector contributing the most to food waste is households (47 million metric tons ±4 million metric tons), which account for 53% of the total mass of food wasted. This is equivalent to a mean value of 92 kilograms per person annually (±9 kg /person/year), but the estimates vary in member states due to differing shares of household food waste. The costs associated with household food waste in the European Union have been estimated at around 98 billion euros per year (Fusions, 2016). The most frequently reported reasons for household food wastage are lack of consumption at the right time, resulting in spoilage or expiration of food products (Aitsidou et al., 2019), food-related routines related to decisions in the food provisioning process (reuse of leftovers routines, planning routines and shopping routines), closely associated with the perceived skills of household members (Stancu et. al., 2016), poor stock management, and improper food storage (Lanfranchi et al., 2016). Consumers often feel confused by labels and do not understand the difference between various types of date labelling. This may result in throwing out safe and edible food products due to misunderstanding or excessive safety concerns (Wilson et al., 2017). The presence of competing goals, such as competition between health and food waste, competition between enjoyment and food waste, and between maintaining the budget and food waste, seems to have an impact on the intentions of consumers to reduce wastage (van Geffen et al., 2020). It was reported that low food prices do not motivate consumers to reduce food waste. Hungarian consumers admitted that they would need more money to reduce waste, arguing that it was often caused by low-quality food that spoils too fast. The empirical evidence on the predictive power of socio-demographic factors is not clear. Earlier studies have reported a negative correlation between age and the amount of household food waste — young people have a greater propensity to waste food than elderly people (Karunasena et al., 2021; Bravi et al., 2020; Visschers et al., 2016; Quested et al., 2013; Secondi et al., 2015). The food waste behavior of younger generations is related to a lack of food management skills, for example the inability to plan their schedules due to extensive activities such as studies, work and social life (Ellison et al., 2019; Ghinea and Ghiuta, 2019). Young consumers found it difficult to identify appropriate portion size during food preparation (Bravi et al., 2020; Quested et al., 2013; Romani et al., 2018). The choice by young adults not to prepare shopping lists results in impulse buys, which also encourages household food waste behavior (Clark and Manning 2018). There is evidence that the younger generation’s knowledge of how to proceed with food is low. Problems occur in deciding whether leftovers or outdated food are still safe to eat (Samotyja, 2021; Nikolaus et al., 2018). Millennials tend to regard date labels as food safety indicators instead of making a distinction between the “use by” and “best before” dates (Leib et al., 2016). According to Labuza et al. (2008), in the US in 2001 fewer people were able to identify correctly the meaning of the date labels on milk products than had been 20 years earlier. Contrary to young people, the 60+ generation tend to have relatively high skill levels in food management, including the specific areas of preservation and the creative use of leftover ingredients (Visschers et al., 2016; Quested et al., 2013). Some researchers noticed that older consumers have more time and show high skill levels due to their involvement in food management around the home from an early stage of their lives (Conde-Caballero et al., 2021; Lanfranchi et al., 2016; Godfray et al., 2010). Additionally, personal experiences such as hunger or food insecurity are linked to concern about food waste (Karunasena et al. 2021). McAdams and von Massow (2018) stated that guilt was the unanimous feeling established in the childhoods of elderly consumers, associated with food waste. On the other hand, contradictory findings are also presented in the literature. Some authors argue that younger people are more concerned about the environment and thus more aware of the concept of food waste and less likely to waste food products (Grasso et al., 2019; Zepeda and Balaine, 2017) or that there is no significant relationship between age and the amount of food wasted in households (Falasconi et al., 2019).

There is also no agreement about the role of education in the amount of food wasted. In some studies, no significant influence was shown (Falasconi et al., 2019; Visschers et al., 2016; Stancu et al., 2016; Koivupuro et al., 2012). Hazuchova et al. (2020) reported that well educated consumers waste the least. In contradiction to this, other studies showed that consumers with higher education waste more food than less educated individuals (Secondi et al., 2015). This phenomenon is attributed to the higher income of better-educated people. According to the “food waste paradox”, lower-income consumers may waste more food than their middle-class counterparts. In the literature, this phenomenon is explained by the previous experience of lower-income consumers with food deficit (Porpino et al., 2015), or the fact that they can simply afford to waste food (Secondi et al., 2015).

According to previous studies, the size of the household significantly affects the amount of food wasted in households. It was found that on a per capita basis, the amount of food waste decreases with the increasing number of people in the household, but, at the same time, larger households waste more food in total than smaller ones (Silvennoinen et al., 2014; Koivupuro et al., 2012). Visschers et al. (2016) stated that factors such as household size and children are fixed. Households with children waste more food because parents pay a lot of attention to food quality or experience difficulties in predicting the right amount of food needed (Visschers et al., 2016; Schanes et al., 2018). According to Grasso et al. (2019), the predictive value of the number of household members depends on the country and the average size of household.

The problem of consumer food waste is receiving increasing scientific attention. Previous studies greatly contributed to understanding the factors influencing consumer food waste and food waste behavior, but the results are not consistent and further work needs to be conducted regarding household food waste. A better understanding of the demographic and economic conditions that differentiate consumer opinions on the reasons for food waste is necessary. Alongside the scientific contribution, the findings of this study constitute a key issue for policymakers in order to implement effective preventive interventions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate consumer behavior on the food market in the context of wastage identification and assessment of consumer opinions in Poland on the causes of the problem of food waste in Polish households.

Materials and methods

The empirical research on consumer behavior in the context of food waste was conducted by face-to-face interviews during the period from April to May 2019. The research tool was an interview questionnaire prepared and checked in piloting. The quantitative study was carried out on consumer awareness of food labeling in the context of reducing food waste. One of the key research goals was to identify the behaviors and attitudes of individual consumers towards the problem of food waste in Poland, and in particular identification of consumers’ opinions on the problem of food waste (particularly the causes of food waste in their opinion). The research population was consumers declaring systematic purchase of food products. The selection of the research sample (N = 1,145) was carried out by the quota method (selection criteria: sex, age, and place of residence), which met the demand for maintaining the relative representativeness of the research population. The survey was conducted by the authors. Data analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics tool.

Results and Discussion

The main issue in the study in the context of food waste by consumers in households in Poland was to diagnose the reasons for this. The consumers surveyed were asked to define what, in their opinion, were the key causes of food waste in households. The following reasons were given, and it was the consumers’ responsibility to choose:

• lack of thought/planning in shopping,
• succumbing to the illusion of “excessive needs” when shopping,
• buying more just in case,
• it is normal that some of the products purchased are not used,
• smaller packages are not available,
• larger packages seem more cost-effective.

The results of consumer opinions on the reasons for throwing out food are presented in Table 1.

Consumers indicated that food in households in Poland is wasted mainly due to poorly planned purchases (51.0%), which means that consumers buy products that are unnecessary. The second reason is the fact that during the purchasing process, consumers have the impression that their needs are much greater than they truly are, which also leads to buying excessive amounts of products (37.0%). Another reason for wasting food is buying food products “just in case” (often for fear of a price increase in an era of inflation or a shortage of products, which was observable in the initial period of the Covid-19 pandemic). 13.8% of consumers indicated that the cause of food wastage is the purchase of large-packaged products (which seems to be more profitable), and 11.1% considered that food is wasted because it is normal for consumers not to consume all the products purchased. Only 8.0% of consumers believed that the cause of food waste was buying products in large packages (which means that the food is not consumed in its entirety), because small or standard packages are not available.

An interesting research issue is the assessment of the awareness and views of consumers in Poland on the causes of food waste depending on their level of education (Table 2).

The reason most frequently indicated by consumers for throwing away purchased food, i.e. “lack of thought / planning in shopping”, occurs to the smallest extent among consumers with vocational education (44.3%), and in consumer segments with higher education levels this percentage clearly increases and amounts to over 50.0% (the highest is in the group of people with engineering / undergraduate education — 56.4%). It can be assumed that consumers with higher education are characterized by possessing greater awareness that the lack of planning in purchasing influences food wastage than consumers with vocational education, although this awareness does not increase proportionally. It can also be associated with the lower levels of income achieved by people with a lower level of education and the need to “save when shopping”.

The relationship between “succumbing to the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ when shopping” and the education of the consumers in Poland surveyed clearly indicates that with the increase in the level of education, the percentage of consumers who identify this reason for throwing away food purchased increases. While in the segment of consumers with vocational education the percentage of consumers indicating that they are misled by excessive needs while shopping for food is 30.3%, in the group of the most educated people this percentage is as high as 42.5%, which is 12.2 percentage points higher. Thus, the more educated the consumer, the greater the awareness of the fact that when shopping, you are buying food that you do not really need, leading to non-consumption and ultimately the food being thrown out.

On the other hand, when analyzing another cause of food wastage, i.e. “buying just in case”, it can be concluded that in this case there is an opposite relationship than before; namely, the highest percentage of consumers indicating this cause occurs in the segment with the lowest education (26.9%), and with the increase in the level of education, the percentage decreases (among people with higher education it is 21.4%).

Although the differences in the percentages of positive responses between consumers with vocational and graduate education are not significant, it can be assumed that with the increase in education, consumers indicate a smaller role for this factor.

Highly interesting results occur with the statement “it is normal that some of the purchased (food) products are not used”. Both in the segment of consumers with vocational education, secondary and engineering/ /bachelor’s this percentage fluctuates around 10.0% (vocational — 8.5%, secondary — 12.5, bachelor / engineering — 10.4%), while in the segment of consumers with the highest level of education it is minimal and amounts to only 1.6%. The above suggests that consumers with a master’s degree are very aware that it is irrational not to use food purchased in its entirety, so people with lower education should be educated regarding the above.

When analyzing another indicated cause of food wastage in households in Poland, namely “larger packages seem more cost-effective”, it can be seen that the highest percentage of consumers declaring this reason occurs in the segment of people with vocational education, and in the remaining segments this percentage clearly decreases (average — 9.6 %, bachelor/engineer — 12.0%, master — 13.2%). It can be assumed that people with vocational education are in the segment of economically sensitive consumers, with lower incomes than the segments of people with higher education, and therefore they buy food in larger than standard packaging due to the fact that the unit price is lower.
Unfortunately, the consumers surveyed are aware that food that has not been purchased is not consumed in its entirety, which contributes to its wastage.

The results regarding the relationship between the last indicated reason for throwing away purchased food, i.e. “smaller packages are not available”, and the education of the consumers surveyed indicate that there are no clear differences between the segments. The lowest percentage of indications is among people with a master’s degree (6.6%), and the highest among people with secondary education (10.1%), so the difference is only 3.5 percentage points. To sum up, it can be stated that with increasing education, there is a decreasing percentage of consumers who declare that:

• food waste is caused by purchasing large packages of products (inexpensive) and ultimately by not consuming the entire food product;
• food waste is caused by purchasing it just in case and creating an excess that is not consumed.

On the other hand, with increasing education, there is a rising percentage of consumers who declare that:

• food waste is due to ill-considered/poorly planned shopping;
• food waste is caused by being influenced at the point of purchase, leading to the illusion of excessive needs and of buying food that is not really needed.

It can therefore be assumed that the least educated consumers more often than other segments are guided by economic premises in their purchases (purchasing large packages), plan their purchases more rationally (for savings reasons), but also buy in advance more often. On the other hand, consumers with the highest education (master’s) believe that not consuming all of the purchased food is not a normal phenomenon and to a lesser extent they are driven by economic reasons (e.g. they are more often under the illusion of excessive needs when shopping and less often buy food in large packages). Thus, it can be concluded that the key reasons for wasting food in the segment of the least/most educated consumers in Poland are different.

In the context of consumer attitudes in Poland towards the problem of wasting purchased food, it is worth analyzing and assessing the
relationship between consumer awareness of the causes of wastage and the level of income in the household (Table 3).

When analyzing the declarations of consumers that the reason for wasting food is “lack of thought/planning in purchasing” and the lack of planning in purchases with regard to the material status of their family, it can be observed that there are no significant differences in the percentages of indications within separate segments and they oscillate around 50.0% (only in the segment of household with an average income is the ratio slightly higher, amounting to 53.6%).

On the other hand, if it is stated that “we are under the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ while shopping”, there are significant differences between the segments of consumers distinguished by the material status of the family. The lowest percentage of responses is in the segment of the poorest consumers, with the material status of the family definitely below (28.6%) and slightly below the national average (29.3%). In households with incomes at the level of the national average and above the national average, the percentage of consumers agreeing with this opinion on the causes of food waste clearly increases — it is the highest in the segment of consumers whose family material status is defined as “slightly above the national average” and amounts to as much as 44.0%.

When analyzing the declarations of consumers that the reason for wasting food is “lack of thought/planning in purchasing” and the lack of planning in purchases with regard to the material status of their family, it can be observed that there are no significant differences in the percentages of indications within separate segments and they oscillate around 50.0% (only in the segment of household with an average income is the ratio slightly higher, amounting to 53.6%).

On the other hand, if it is stated that “we are under the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ while shopping”, there are significant differences between the segments of consumers distinguished by the material status of the family. The lowest percentage of responses is in the segment of the poorest consumers, with the material status of the family definitely below (28.6%) and slightly below the national average (29.3%). In households with incomes at the level of the national average and above the national average, the percentage of consumers agreeing with this opinion on the causes of food waste clearly increases — it is the highest in the segment of consumers whose family material status is defined as “slightly above the national average” and amounts to as much as 44.0%.

Consumers agree to a similar extent, regardless of the material status of the family, with the statement “we buy more just in case”, which
contributes to food waste. The percentage of responses ranges from 19.8% in the segment of consumers describing the material status of their family as “definitely below the national average” to 24.7% in the segment of consumers describing the material status of their family as “slightly below the national average”. It is evident that the difference is not significant and amounts to 4.9 percentage points. Thus, it can be concluded that in the case of this opinion on the problem of food waste, the material status of the family does not significantly differentiate consumer opinions. It is similar in the case of the statement: “it is normal that some of the purchased food products are not used” — the results presented in Table 3 show that there are no significant differences in the percentages of indications between consumer segments in terms of the differing material status of the family.

Considering the views of consumers on the causes of the problem of food wastage related to the purchase of large packages (which seem favorable in price or are purchased due to the lack of smaller food packages), it is observable that there are differences in the percentages of indications between consumer segments with different family material statuses. And so, in the case of the statement: “smaller packages are not available”, the highest percentage occurs in the segment of consumers with a family material status definitely below the national average (13.2%) and in the segment with material status slightly below the national average (10.6%).

On the other hand, the lowest percentage of responses, 6.2%, is in the segment of consumers with an average familial financial status and slightly above the national average. Interestingly, in the segment of consumers from the best-off families (definitely above the national average) this percentage increases to 9.7%. Thus, the notion that buying larger packages when smaller ones are not available contributes to food waste is more popular with consumers in the poorest segment and in the most affluent segment. On the other hand, in the case of the statement: “larger packages seem more cost-effective”, the highest percentage of consumers agreeing with this opinion occurs in the segment of consumers who define the material status of their family much below the national average (18.7%), and the lowest — in the segment of consumers who define their material status as definitely above the national average (11.0%).

In the remaining consumer segments, the ratio ranges from 12.6% (slightly below the national average), through 13.8% (national average) to 15.0% (slightly above the national average). Therefore, it can be assumed that consumers in Poland from the poorest households buy larger food packaging, while realizing that not consuming this food in its entirety contributes to its wastage.

Another interesting aspect of the study is the analysis of consumer attitudes in Poland towards the causes of food waste in Polish households depending on the age of consumers. The results are presented in Table 5.

The “lack of thought/planning in shopping” is indicated as the main reason for wasting food by the consumers surveyed, regardless of the age segment, although the highest percentage of indications occurs in the group of consumers aged 20–29 (57.1%) and aged 50–59 years (53.0%). On the other hand, “the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ when shopping”, indicated as another important reason for wasting food, is most important for consumers aged 20–29 and 30–39, and least important for seniors 60+.

Perhaps the elderly, due to their age and experience, limit the purchase of food products due to the feeling of excessive needs, while younger consumers do not have such long-established experiences and beliefs yet.

Buying food “just in case” may contribute to its wastage mainly according to age-mature consumers, i.e. over 40 years of age. Analyzing the results of the study, it can be observed that as the age of consumers increases, the belief that buying food “in case” is an important factor leading to throwing away non-consumed food, and thus wasting it, increases. The belief that “it is normal that some of the purchased products are not used” is highest among the youngest consumers (up to 19 years) compared to other age groups. This is very worrying because such an attitude among young consumers may result in future purchasing and consumption decisions which will unfortunately lead to food waste. In turn, this reason is the least important for consumers aged 50–59. Analyzing another reason for wasting food in households, i.e. the belief that “larger packages seem more cost-effective” in the context of the age segments studied, it can be observed that there are slight differences in the indications by individual segments (they oscillate between 12.0% and 16.4%). The “smaller
packages are not available” is the last reason for food waste indicated by the surveyed consumers. Analyzing it through the prism of age segments, it can be seen that the youngest respondents (up to 19 years) did not indicate this reason at all (perhaps these consumers do not decide to buy food in larger packages when smaller ones are not available, and so this reason for food wastage is not relevant to them). On the other hand, the highest percentage of indications can be seen in the consumer segment of 30–39 years and 60+.

The next correlation is the analysis of the relationship between the opinions of consumers in Poland about the causes of food waste and the size of the household. It is interesting to see whether consumers’ views on the causes of wastage are different in small (1, 2), medium (3.4) and large (5+) households (they differ depending on the size of the household). The results obtained in the study are presented in Table 4.

Consumers from one and two-person households (52.1% and 53.8%) and the largest 5+ households (54.4%) agree most with the statement that the cause of wasting food in households in Poland is “lack of thought / planning in shopping”. In households of three and four people, the percentage of responses is lower and amounts to about 48%.

On the other hand, in the case of the opinion “succumbing to the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ when shopping”, the lowest percentage of responses concerns consumers from one-person households (31.7%), and the highest percentage from three-person households (43.0%). In the case of consumers from two-person, four-person and the largest 5+ households, the percentage of positive responses is practically the same and amounts to approximately 36%. Thus, consumers from three-person households stand out from other segments due to a relatively high percentage of people indicating that being under the illusion of excessive needs while shopping is the reason for throwing away the purchased food.

When analyzing the statement “buying more just in case”, depending on the size of the household, it can be observed that the segment of consumers from the largest households (5+) least agree with this statement (16.7%). In the remaining segments analyzed, the percentage of responses ranges from 21.1% (single-person households) to 25.7% (four-person households). Thus, it can be concluded that when analyzing the opinions of consumers regarding this cause of food waste in relation to the number of people in a household, only the most numerous households (5+) with the lowest percentage of positive responses is distinguished. It can therefore be assumed that the largest households have the lowest tendency to engage in so-called “panic buying”. However, this can also be associated with households that do make “larger”
purchases entailing significant expense.

If consumers agree with the statement that “it is normal that some of the products purchased are not used” in relation to the number of people in the household, it can be seen that the lowest percentage of consumers agreeing with the above is in the segment of two people (8.5%) and 5 + households (8.8%). In the remaining segments, the percentage of indications hovers around 13.0%. Therefore, no directly proportional relationship between the attitudes of consumers towards this cause of food wastage and the size of the household can be indicated.

On the other hand, when analyzing the opinions of consumers as to the statement: “it happens that smaller packages are not available” (which directly affects non-consumption and throwing away of food), it is interesting that the lowest percentage of indications occurs in the segment of the largest 5+ households and amounts to only 6.1%. Large households purchase larger quantities of products, so — perhaps — buying food in large packages is a standard purchase for them and does not involve the lack of consumption of the entire product, so it is the least considered cause of food waste.

However, different results are found in the case of the analysis of the last indicated cause of food waste, which is: “larger packages seem more cost-effective” depending on the size of the household. It turns out that consumers from one-person households (10.6%) agree the least with this statement, and consumers from the largest 5+ households (19.3%) most agree. Perhaps these indicators result from the specific purchasing decisions made by these households, namely individuals are less likely to buy large packages of food (although they may be cost-effective), because they will not have time to consume the product by the use by date. On the other hand, for households of 5+, the purchase of food in large packages may be standard, and unfortunately this food is not always consumed, hence such a high percentage indicating this cause of food waste in Poland.

The last segmentation variable analyzed in the context of consumer attitudes and beliefs in Poland regarding the causes of food waste is the number of children in the household. The results of the study in this area are presented in Table 6.

When analyzing consumers who indicate that the cause of food wastage is “lack of thought/planning in shopping” in terms of the number of children in households, it is evident that the highest percentage of indications occurs among consumers with 4 or more children in their family (58.8%), and the lowest — among consumers with 3 children in the family (44.4%). The above result is somewhat surprising, as it could be assumed that with the increase in the number of children, planning family purchases is rational and does not constitute a reason for wasting food, yet it turned out that there was no such relationship. On the other hand, in the case of the second most frequently mentioned reason by consumers which — in their opinion — contributes to food waste in households, i.e., “succumbing to the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ when shopping”, the highest percentage occurs in families with 4 or more children (41.2%), and the lowest in the case of families without any child (33.3%). Perhaps families with many children, due to the number of children, actually experience excessive needs when shopping, which may affect their attitude towards the causes of food waste.

On the other hand, these families indicate the least (among all analyzed segments) that the reason for throwing out food products is buying them “in case” (16.2%). This may mean that such families have a limited household budget and they buy systematically, trying to avoid excessive stocks, which may limit food waste in their households. Also, when analyzing the attitudes of consumers towards the statement that “it is normal that some of the products purchased are not used” in relation to the number of children in a family, it can be noticed that consumers from families with the largest number of children least agree with this (4.4%), while consumers from families without children agreed the most (16.7%).

Therefore, it can be assumed that families with many children make more rational purchases of food, which may contribute to limiting food wastage.

Convincing consumers that buying food products in large packages contributes to wasting food because “larger packages seem more costeffective” is highest in the segment of consumers from the largest families (19.1%), and lowest among consumers from small families. Thus, it can be seen that as the number of children in the family grows, the belief that purchasing large packages of products may contribute to non-consumption of all food, and thus its wastage, also grows. On the other hand, the attitudes of consumers towards the statement that buying products in large packages contributes to wasting food, as “the smaller packages are not available” can be considered independent of the number of children in the family.

Consumers in Poland admit that they did not consume the food purchased because they are not fully aware of the difficulties with interpreting the information on the shelf life of food. In the context of the above, an interesting research issue was to identify consumer opinions on the causes of food waste and to diagnose the relationship between opinions and segmentation variables such as consumer age, consumer education, material status, the number of people in the household and the number of children in the family (Ankiel & Samotyja, 2020).

Conclusions and recommendations

Food wastage, both in Poland and worldwide, remains a key social, economic, behavioral and ethical problem. Consumers in Poland throw away food they do not consume for reasons related to poorly planned, excessive, impulse purchases, incorrect interpretation of various types of date labeling or buying food that they cannot properly prepare for consumption. Generally, our findings support the conclusion that Polish consumers consider the main cause of food waste to be “lack of thought/planning in shopping” and “the illusion of ‘excessive needs’ when shopping”, while the lowest percentage of indications concerns the reason related to the purchase of food in large packages, namely: “smaller packages are not available” and “larger packages seem more costeffective”.
When analyzing the education of consumers in the context of the indicated reasons for wasting food, we found that less educated consumers more often indicated reasons related to the purchase of large packages or the belief that it is normal to always buy more. In turn, the most educated consumers more often indicated reasons based on the belief that they have greater consumption needs or that purchases are poorly planned. Taking into account the material status of consumers, consumers with a good standard of living pointed to the causes of food wastage related to irrational, impulse, and poorly planned purchases to a greater extent, while consumers with a poor standard of living pointed to the reasons related to the purchase of products in large packages (which may result from being guided by the economic determinants of the purchase). When analyzing the size of households (in terms of the number of people and the number of children in these households) in the context of the opinion on the causes of food wastage, our findings indicate that consumers from large households less frequently indicate the causes related to irrational purchasing behavior. Consumers from large households perceive the problem of “in case” purchases or those related to excessive needs to a lesser extent as the causes of food wastage in households, but more often indicate reasons related to the purchase of food in large packages.

Based on Polish consumers’ opinions on the issue, therefore, we can conclude that reducing the problem of food wastage requires intensive education of consumers in the rational planning of food purchases, rational consumption, as well as the correct interpretation of food labeling with the terms of durability. In addition to the above, a significant role in preventing food wastage is played by food producers, who should, through communication activities, make consumers aware of the scale of the problem, but they should also clearly, reliably and legibly label food with durability terms so that the consumer has no problem reading and interpreting these. In addition, food producers should limit the packaging of food products with a short shelf life in large packages, as this favors the non-consumption of the entire product, and thus its wastage. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning the role of commercial entities (mainly large-format stores), which should conduct campaigns encouraging consumers to buy food products with a short shelf life (at a reduced price), as well as educational campaigns raising consumer awareness of the problem of food waste.

This study, conducted on the opinions/attitudes of consumers in Poland regarding the causes of food waste, has obvious limitations. These result from the declarative nature of the study, which does not necessarily reflect actual purchasing and consumption behavior. Nevertheless, the results and conclusions presented constitute valuable illustrative material concerning the attitudes of consumers towards the problem of food waste in Poland, which may form the basis for communication activities aimed at increasing public awareness and thus reducing the scale of waste.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by the National Science Centre (Narodowe Centrum Nauki), Poland [grant number 2017/27/B/HS4/00805].

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With increasing prevalence, social networking platforms are being used by consumers for two-way communication, not only to connect with their friends and family but increasingly to connect with brands. This gives rise to a need for research enabling us to better understand consumers’ motives for engaging in social media communication, exploring why people like fanpages and write comments and posts on social media sites. Research is also needed to examine the various opportunities brands have to understand and possibly influence consumers’ behavior and actions. Much of the existing research has focused on understanding the impact of social media usage on consumer buying behavior (Nash, 2018; Hollebeek & Solem, 2017; Naylor & Lamberton, West, 2012; Erkan & Evans, 2016a; Gunawan& Huarng, 2015; Park, Lee& Han, 2007) with a particular emphasis on eWOM (Chu & Choi, 2011, Erkan & Evans, 2016b; Wolny & Mueller, 2013; Wang, Yu & Wei, 2012). While it is undoubtedly useful for brands to know this, it should be of interest to both academics and practitioners to gain a better understanding of what motivates consumers to engage in communication activities on social networks, and how brands can encourage or discourage such behaviors, which may later lead to purchase.

Social media platforms are nowadays one of the most important communication channels utilized by clothing brands (Bruhn, Schoenmueller & Schafer, 2012; Mangold & Faulds, 2009). This is primarily due to their popularity, the possibility of two-way communication (interacting directly with customers) and the ability to communicate using visual content. The last factor is particularly important for the fashion industry. It has been said that social media has become the most important runway for the fashion industry (Apparel Industry, 2010). The power and influence of social media on fashion industry is undoubted (Ahmad, Salman & Ashiq, 2015). Social media has become one of the most popular tools which creates a link between fashion brand and the consumer. This link not only gives a boost to purchase intentions but also increases two-way communication (Thackeray et al., 2008; Sashi, 2012). Social media platforms are also very valuable tools for consumers. Customers from the clothing industry use social media in their purchase process in several ways. They observe, add clothing brand profiles to friends, gather information about products, look for discounts and information about new collections and trends (Rajapaksha & Dk, 2019). They treat social media as a source of information and recommendations on clothing products (Chu & Kim, 2011). Opinions of other people and other consumers published in social media are one of the most important sources of information about clothing products.

Social media are particularly important in the context of young consumers belonging to “Generation Z” — the digital generation that lives simultaneously online and offline, spending about 4 hours daily online, mostly on social media platforms (Stachowiak-Krzyżan& Ankiel, 2019; Nask, 2019). Generation Z is one of the most numerous and active groups of social media users, they are called ‘digital era leaders’ (Berg, 2017). Young people belong to the target group of many clothing brands in the fast-fashion segment. The fast-fashion phenomenon has revolutionized the clothing industry over the past decade (Gabrielli, Baghi& Codeluppi, 2013). Fast-fashion consumption is predicated on a desire for instant gratification and affordable items with short product life cycle (McNeill & Venter, 2018). Research suggests that this phenomenon is particularly salient amongst young female consumers, who have little awareness of the social impact of their fashion consumption, but exhibit the highest levels of demand for new fashion products (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). Young people through their outfit express meanings about oneself and create an identity (McNeill & Moore, 2015). Fashion is psychologically central to teenagers in their self-evaluation and fashion facilitates social inclusion and avoidance of bullying and self-confidence (Isaksen & Roper, 2012). For young people personal appearance and body image are crucial (Ceballos & Bejarano, 2018; Jurgensen & Guesalaga, 2017). Young consumers demonstrate a desire to keep abreast of the latest product and brand trends. Generation Z have noteworthy purchasing power (Su & Tong, 2018; Parker, Hermans & Schaefer, 2004). Their purchasing decisions regarding clothing are often influenced by influencers or idols (Majkrzak & Salerno-Kochan, 2016).

The purpose of this article is to analyze consumers’ interactions with fast-fashion brands on social networking platforms, focusing on consumers’ motives for engagement in fashion brands communication activities realized in social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest and Youtube. We use Principle Component Analysis to identify the critical factors determining the involvement of Polish representatives of Generation Z in clothing brand profiles, the main assumptions held by the survey participants regarding the clothing brands’ motives for being present and active on social media platforms, the types of the “best” social media activities conducted by clothing brand.

Conceptual background

Consumer involvement in fashion

The starting point for the development of the concept of customer engagement was the concept of relationship marketing, based on satisfaction and loyalty and building long-term relationships (Baird & Parasnis, 2011; Sashi 2012). Consumer involvement is perceived as consumer activity in relation to the company (Kumar et al., 2010; Brodie et al., 2011; Vivek, Beatty, Morgan 2012). If the consumer’s relationship with the given company is satisfying and based on emotional ties, this leads to the higher level: consumer commitment. The roots of the concept of consumer involvement should be sought in the psychology and theory of organizational behavior (Hollebeek, 2011; Brodie et al., 2013).

Consumer involvement is a multi-dimensional concept. Most often, in the literature, it is presented as a measure of the company’s activity (Kumar et al., 2010; Brodie et al., 2011; Vivek, Beatty & Morgan, 2012). Customer activity is considered in terms of purchases made, incentives directed to the customer, customer conversations about the brand (e.g. in social media) and feedback from the consumer to the company, containing suggestions for changes, in order to improve the level of services provided or product improvement (Zomerdijk, Voss 2010).

Kumar and Pansai (2017) see consumer involvement as a mechanism of influence in the process of creating added value for the company by the customer via his or her direct or indirect participation. Direct participation of the consumer in the creation of added value for the company consists of purchases made by customers, while indirect participation consists of recommendations, consumer conversations about the brand as well as customer feedback and suggestions for the company.

Fashion involvement may be understood as an attachment between consumer and fashion clothing or a relationship between consumer and brand (Su & Tong 2018). Fashion clothing is commonly considered a highinvolvement product category (Su & Tong, 2018; Naderi, 2013; Vieria, 2009; O’Cass, 2004), because of its symbolic, expressive or emotional meaning (Miller-Spillman, Reilly, Hunt-Hurst, 2012; O’Cass, 2000).

Fashion involvement refers to the extent of interest in fashion products and the amount of time, money, and attention spent on fashion products (Park, Kim & Forney, 2006). Fashion involvement can be defined by the combined impact of several important fashion-related behaviors: fashion innovativeness and time of purchase, fashion interpersonal communication, fashion interest, fashion knowledgeability, fashion awareness and reacting to changing fashion trends (Tiger, Ring & King, 1976). Fashion involvement is stronger when a product can satisfy valuable utilitarian and hedonic goals, and generate interest, enthusiasm and excitement (Khare, Mishra & Parveen, 2012). Research has shown that consumers differ in their level of involvement in fashion consumption, with younger consumers exhibiting a higher level of fashion involvement than older consumers (O’Cass, 2004). This causes them to perceive fashion consumption as highly substantial to their self-worth; moreover, they are often fashion innovators or opinion leaders among their peers (O’Cass, 2000; Ogle, Hyllegard & Yan, 2014).

Social media as a tool to engage consumers

Social media is defined as a group of online and offline applications that allow for the exchange of user-generated content including the exchange of knowledge and opinions (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). There is a variety of such online information-sharing social media platforms, including social networking platforms (e.g. Facebook), content-sharing platforms (e.g. YouTube, Instagram, Pinterest, Tik-Tok), collaborative websites (e.g. Wikipedia) and microblogging platforms (e.g. Twitter, Tumblr) (Yannopoulou at al., 2019). Nowadays, almost every single company promotes its products or services on social media in some way.

Facebook brand pages have become one of the first channels through which consumers are able to interact with brands in a direct way, by liking, sharing or commenting on brands’ posts and messages (Machado, Antunes & Miranda, 2018). With the emergence of new social networking platforms (e.g. Youtube, Instagram, Pinterest, Tik-Tok, Snapchat and others), their importance in the context of building customer engagement grew (Niyonkomezi & Kwamboka, 2020; Weitz & Einwiller, 2018;

Miranda, Antunes & Machado, 2016). The like, share and comment features of social media allow anyone to easily interact with a brand. A single brand post can receive thousands of comments from social media sites users all over the world who interact with the brand and other users, providing a platform for dialogue from which information and feedback can be easily obtained. Social-media-using consumers can increasingly integrate and act as co-creators of brand messages. They have a great opportunity to engage and actively participate in communication on the brand’s pages on social media. These actions strengthen consumers’ ties with brands, turning them into committed fans (Niyonkomezi & Kwamboka, 2020).

More and more research is being done in the context of consumer engagement in social media. Previous studies in the field of customer engagement in brand communities have focused mostly on the consequences of engagement, including concepts of satisfaction (Bowden 2009), commitment and emotional attachment to the brand (Chan & Li, 2010), empowerment (Cova & Pace, 2006; Fuller et al., 2009), consumer value (Gruen et al., 2006; Schau et al., 2009), trust (Casalo et al., 2007; Hollebeek, 2011) and loyalty (Andersen, 2005; Casalo et al., 2007). Currently, various measures are used to explore and gauge consumer engagement. Most often, researchers use the likes, shares and comments index (Vries, Gensler & Leeflang, 2012; Cvijiki & Michahelles, 2013).

The main aim of this study, therefore, was to identify the role and importance of content published on social media platforms on the purchasing decisions made by young consumers (Generation Z) in the fastfashion clothing market in Poland. More specifically, we set out to study the activity of Generation Z in social media in the context of decisions to purchase clothing, in particular:

• what activity representatives of Generation Z display on the profiles of clothing brands in social media;
• key determinants of Generation Z’s involvement in the profiles of clothing brands in social media;
• key assumptions held by Generation Z representatives regarding the presence of clothing brands in social media.

Study and methods

We empirically examined the behavior of young consumers of Generation Z in the context of their use of social media in making purchasing decisions in the fast-fashion market in Poland, using the facetoface interview method, in the period from June 2017 to January 2018. After an initial assessment, 1,000 correctly completed questionnaires were accepted for further analysis. The research tool was an interview questionnaire prepared and verified in piloting. The measuring instrument consisted of 24 questions, including 6 demographic questions. The survey was anonymous and primarily consisted of closed-end, matrix and ranking questions. In addition, the interview questionnaire contained questions requesting information about the responders’ demographic, economic and social characteristics (including sex, age, place of residence, material status, education). The survey was conducted among consumers who declared that they systematically purchase fast-fashion products. The detailed breakdown of the research sample is presented in Table 1.

Nominal and ordinal scales were used in the questionnaire, including the Likert scale, i.e. a bipolar interval scale. The nominal scales were multiple and single choice. The reliability of the construction of the questionnaire was verified by the Alpha-Cronbach test (the coefficient alpha oscillated between 0.7–0.9). In the process of empirical data analysis, the IBM SPSS Statistics tool was used to analyze the results in terms of statistical description, correlation analysis, and factor analysis.

Result and discussion

Activity of Generation Z on the profiles of clothing brands in social media

One of the goals of the study was to identify the activity of Generation Z on the profiles of clothing brands in social media. The vast majority of the surveyed consumers of Generation Z in Poland are active in social media on the profiles of clothing brands in the fast-fashion segment. Detailed results of the study in this area are presented in Table 2 and 3 and in Figure 1.

As Table 2 shows, half of the respondents declared that they “liked” (or, depending on the nomenclature of the specific platform, that they “observed”/”subscribed to” their friends) from 6 to 10 profiles of clothing brands on various social networks. Every fourth respondent was not able to indicate or did not remember how many such profiles they liked. Taking into account gender, it turns out that women like more of such profiles than men. This may be due to the fact that women are usually more interested in fashion and trends, which are topics of interest, passions and hobbies for many women. In addition, there are more clothing brands on the market that offer women’s fashion than those with products intended for men, and therefore women have a wider range of brands that they may like.

Another interesting research issue is what motives drive the representatives of Generation Z in Poland when using profiles of clothing brands in social media.

Among the most important reasons why respondents click like on the fanpage of a clothing brand or follow it on Instagram or subscribe on YouTube, the following can be distinguished: eagerness to use a discount coupon ( = 3.4), which is usually only available to fans or friends of a given brands, the desire to be up to date, follow the offerings of a given clothing brand ( = 3.28) and, importantly, becoming a fan of a clothing brand is a reaction to respondents’ satisfaction with the purchased clothing products of a given brand ( = 3.18). The least important factors included a desire to participate in the discussion ( = 2.04) and to express an opinion about a clothing brand or its products ( = 2.4). This means that young people are more likely to draw upon the opinions of other people, read their recommendations regarding specific products, and at the same time are not eager to publicly express their own reflections and experiences.

In general, women are more active on clothing brand profiles than men. Women contact clothing brands much more often and more eagerly through private messages, in which they may be looking for support from the service department, information about products, the materials used, their availability, etc. Perhaps when choosing this form of contact, women do not want to make their activities, opinions or purchasing decisions public, they do not want any of their friends to notice their activity. On the other hand, as the survey results show, men are more likely to make public their opinions about clothing products and to interact with other users of social networking sites. Women’s activity is less “public” and visible.

The critical factors determining the involvement of the Z generation in clothing brand profiles

In order to identify the key determinants of survey participants’ involvement in the profiles of clothing brands in social media, factor analysis was used. In accordance with the procedure for verifying the correctness of the application of this method, Bartlett sphericity tests were carried out and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin index was calculated (Table 4).

The obtained KMO value is 0.679, which indicates that the sampling was adequate for using exploratory factor analysis (it can be assumed that in this case the level of correlation between the factors is high).

Factor analysis was conducted using the method of Principal Component Analysis. Based on Cattell’s scree test (a scree plot), three groups of factors were created. Then, adopting a factor loading level of 0.5 as a cut-off point, all the factors were assigned into specific groups (Table 3). The three factors combined explain nearly 57% of common variance: the first one explains 29%, the second 15% and the third 13%.

The results of factor analysis shown in Table 5 allow us to identify the following key determinants of young consumers’ involvement in the profiles of clothing brands in social media:

Factor 1: active involvement in the clothing brand profile (the opportunity to express one’s opinion, the opportunity to participate in the contests, the possibility of systematic tracking of the clothing brand’s offerings);

Factor 2: observation for measurable benefits (possibility of obtaining a discount, searching for information on clothing brands);

Factor 3: brand loyalty (the opportunity to participate in the discussion, attachment to a clothing brand).

In summary, for young consumers, the main reasons for liking clothing brand profiles is the desire to be actively involved in the clothing brand profile. Secondly, young consumers are involved in clothing brand profiles because they see additional benefits, e.g. discount coupons. Thirdly, young consumers are involved in clothing brand profiles to show their loyalty to the clothing brand, which may be the result of positive experiences with the clothing product.

The critical factors determining assumptions about clothing brands’ motives for their social media presence and activity

Another research goal was to identify the key assumptions held by the Generation Z representatives participating in the survey about the clothing brands’ motives for being present and active in social media. For this, we again used factor analysis. The procedure was the same as described in section 3.2. First, the results were subjected to Bartlett’s sphericity test and the KMO (Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin) measure was calculated. Again, both the obtained measurements confirmed the adequacy of the sample for performing factor analysis (Table 6).

Then the analysis was again conducted using the method of Principal Component Analysis. Based on Cattell’s scree test (a scree plot), two groups of factors were created. Then, adopting a factor loading level of 0.5 as a cut-off point, all the factors were assigned into specific groups (Table 7). The two factors combined explain nearly 52% of common variance: the first one explains 34% and the second 18%.

The results of factor analysis included in Table 7 allow to identify the following key factors underlying participants’ assumptions about clothing brands’ motives for their social media presence and activity:

• Factor 1: image/sales goals (working to ensure the brand image, boosting product sales, acquiring new customers);
• Factor 2: cognitive goals (imitating/following the competition, obtaining information about clients, looking for new employees).

In the opinion of young consumers surveyed, the main motives assumed to be driving the presence of fast-fashion clothing brands in social media are image and sales goals, i.e. striving to improve sales results, to attract new customers or to care for and project the brand image. The second important type of assumed motive are cognitive goals, manifested in the desire to look for employees or obtain information about their clients.

The critical factors determining the best clothing brand activities in social media

The last goal was to identify factors which determine the best clothing brand activities in social media. Once again, the procedure was the same as described in section 3.2 and 3.3. Firstly, Bartlett’s sphericity test and the KMO (Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin) measure were calculated. Again, both measurements confirmed the sampling adequacy for performing factor analysis (Table 8).

Next, Principal Component Analysis was applied. Based on Cattell’s scree test (a scree plot), two groups of factors were created. Then, adopting a factor loading level of 0.5 as a cut-off point, all the factors were assigned into specific groups (Table 9). The two factors combined explain nearly 46% of common variance: the first one explains 28%, the second 18%.

The results of the factor analysis listed in Table 9 identify the following key determinants behind the presence and activity of clothing brands:

• Factor 1: entertainment activities (posting information from the clothing industry, conducting contests, providing games and applications);
• Factor 2: information activities (announcing new clothing collections and new products in the assortment, announcing special offers
  (discounts, sales, coupons), publishing photos and video materials about products and clothing brand).

For young consumers, the most interesting activities undertaken by clothing brands in social media are entertainment activities, including conducting contests and providing games and applications. The second group of valuable activities are information activities, consisting in providing information about new clothing collections as well as special offers and sales.

Conclusions

Social media platforms are a key channel of marketing communication for clothing companies from the fast-fashion segment, in the process of the purchasing decisions made by young consumers. Research has shown that social media platforms are used by young consumers at different stages of the decision-making process. They not only generate needs, but also constitute a valuable source of inspiration at the stage of searching for opportunities to satisfy a need. Our results indicate that women add more clothing brand profiles to their lists of friends than men do. In addition, women are more active on the profiles of clothing brands in social media, are more likely to make use of discount coupons, more often like and comment on published content and share it, take part in contests, add posts with inquiries and send private messages. In turn, men are more likely to express their opinion about products and enter into discussions with other users of social media. Gender also differentiates the opinions of the respondents towards the profiles of clothing brands in social media. Women, despite the fact that they treat these profiles as another advertising medium, evaluate them positively, as useful and interesting. Social media platforms alter the roles of buyers and sellers and the relationships between them.

The use of social media allows fans to connect and interact with other users, increasing mutual satisfaction and advocacy for brands. Seeking insight into customers’ involvement, our study analyzed the influencing factors in terms of Generation Z’s involvement on the social media profiles of fashion brands. From the point of view of companies in the clothing industry, customer engagement turns customers into fans. They become brand ambassadors, more attractive, more profitable and regular customers. Customers play an important role in the value-adding process as co-creators of content and value. Customer involvement is essential to brands for retaining them and turning them into loyal customers. On the other hand, from the point of view of customers, their commitment displayed in social media can be the result of several reasons: personal motives, a desire to achieve additional benefits and as an expression of loyalty to a fashion brand.

The results of this study may serve as a valuable source of information for brand managers who are responsible for designing and implementing brand communication activities in social media. The findings may help fashion brands to better understand how to influence peer-to-peer communications and how to engage their fans on social media. Moreover, the results of this study may lay the foundation for developing a strategy to increase customer satisfaction. Marketers should continually strive to learn more about what representatives of Generation Z — both in Poland and elsewhere — expect and what content they desire.

Limitations and future research directions

This study has several limitations. Firstly, the sample is limited. The results cannot be generalized to Polish consumers overall, due to the study population being limited to young people. Although this particular group of consumers is playing an important role in the clothing market, the results do not provide a comprehensive description of consumer engagement. Therefore, further research should also be carried out to include other consumer groups and other generations.

Secondly, the test results cannot be generalized to all clothing brands on the market from various segments. The survey covered the fast-fashion clothing segment, a segment which has its own distinctive traits. For this reason, the survey results should not be generalized to other segments of the clothing market.

It should also be noted that the study reported herein only considered selected social media sites popular in the clothing industry, which are often used by young people in Poland (Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, Youtube and Pinterest). It would be interesting to continue the study, examining the communication activities of clothing brands on individual, specific social networking sites, taking into account their distinctive aspects, which would allow better insight to be gained into consumer involvement. Moreover, it would be very interesting to conduct a similar study considering the Covid-19 pandemic and its impact on consumer behavior.

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