One of the important issues related to higher education is how the role of universities in the modern world is to be understood. An essential task of higher education institutions is to prepare specialists with competences that correspond well to employer expectations. The challenge facing the educational system, however, is to curate their curricula so as to teach competencies that not only meet current market demands, but will also remain relevant in a future marked by uncertainty. This is because ongoing socio-economic transformations induced by the fourth industrial revolution – where digitalization, automation, and globalization play the dominating role – in tandem with the diversity of values, cultures, and customs, demand a reevaluation of the competences necessary for both present and future employees. It is therefore imperative for both Polish and foreign universities to aim for better alignment between their curricula and the competency requirements of businesses and institutions.

The mismatch between competences taught by universities and the needs of employers translates into difficulties in finding suitable candidates for employment – approximately 33% of companies in Poland, for instance, report disparities between the desired competences and those possessed by job candidates. This issue is particularly emphasized in the services sector (where one in two companies is affected), as well as in medium-sized (44%) and large (33%) enterprises (Gi Group Holding Polska, 2023). Furthermore, research findings (Dąbkowska et al., 2022) indicate that this mismatch serves as a barrier to the growth of one in every three companies.

Universities and other institutions providing vocational education services face challenges in addressing the demands of the labor market. This is particularly evident from the perspective of state-owned institutions, following traditional education models, which require more time to effectively develop and implement new or modified programs that respond to evolving labor market needs . This sluggishness, sometimes further compounded by the bureaucratic hurdles inherent in state educational institutions, often opens up opportunities for alternative education providers, such as e-learning platforms, to fill the gap with flexible and widely accessible training options catered to specific market needs. The changing dynamics pose a threat to the long-standing supremacy of universities in credentialing highly qualified professionals, prompting a reimagining of the corporate education landscape. Beyond their rigid program-development procedures, other factors also deserve mention, such as inadequate state funding for higher education, the pauperization of the academic environment, and constraints in adopting new technologies, all of which determine the functioning of universities in shaping useful competences.

The objective of this article is to diagnose the current and future requirements of the labor market regarding employee competences, including those of graduates from business universities. Based on an analysis of secondary and primary data, we strive to infer the desired directions for competence development within universities. Given the relatively limited engagement of the latter sources, this article is of an exploratory nature, providing a general overview of anticipated labor market needs in the near future. Nevertheless, we believe that these insights will prove useful in designing and adapting business education programs facilitating the acquisition of valuable competences by students. Universities offering such competences will strengthen their competitive position, while businesses will be able to more successfully execute their strategies.

Nature and Types of Competences

The meaning of the term “competence” has evolved over time. Initially, it referred to a narrow concept – the formal authority to handle specific matters on behalf of an organization and to make decisions within a defined scope. This understanding later expanded to encompass the range of powers, duties, and responsibilities assigned to an employee’s organizational position. In 1973, McClelland associated competence with education. Boyatzis, regarded by many researchers as the pioneer of integrating the concept of competence into the field of human resource management (Sidor-Rządkowska, 2008), defined it in 1982 as “the potential existing in man, leading to such behavior that contributes to meeting the requirements of a given workplace within the parameters of the organization’s environment, which in turn provides the desired results” (Oleksyn, 2006). In the 1980s, the notion of competence was linked with the professional realm, particularly with human resources development, while in the 1990s, it came to be associated with the learning paradigm. A report to the National Institute of Education in the United States defines competence as “a fundamental characteristic of an individual that results in effective and/or excellent performance at work”.

Competence is perceived as a general ability, rooted in knowledge, experience, values, and inclinations, that a person has developed as a result of involvement in educational practices (Hutmacher, 1997). Competence cannot be reduced to knowledge based on facts or routine; being competent is not always equivalent to having knowledge or cultural awareness. In the broadest sense, competence is understood as encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, whereas in a more pragmatic understanding, as the indispensable prerequisites for meeting complex requirements, making decisions or performing work.

In the 21^st century, the understanding of the concept of “competence” increasingly emphasizes independence and responsibility in the performance of tasks by employees, conscious engagement in work, and the associated accountability for its execution, in line with mutually agreed standards . When reviewing different approaches to this concept, it should be borne in mind that competences and their scope are in each case relevant to specific individuals working within a specific enterprise. Hence, we should acknowledge Wawrzyniak’s view that “an approach to managing the human factor within an organization based solely on formal qualifications and experience measured by seniority is not sufficient at the current stage of organizational development. The particular significance (of this factor) for the organization is associated with competences, understood as the knowledge, skills, motivation, attitudes, and behavior of employees.” These narrower and broader approaches to the concept of competence do not fully resolve the challenge of defining the term, but instead indicate the existence of varying aspects of the subject in question.

In this article we embrace a comprehensive interpretation of competences, following Le Boterf in defining it as the individual’s capacity to execute tasks by mobilizing appropriate resources (skills, knowledge, know-how, behaviors, and attitudes) among those previously acquired through education or prior experiences (Lamri, 2019). Furthermore, we assume that competences yield outcomes consistent with the strategic intentions of the company.

The existing literature on the subject presents various categorizations of competences, with authors dividing them up according to the characteristics they possess and functions they perform (Oleksyn, 2006; Moczydłowska, 2008; Rostkowski, 2002). Competences are commonly categorized into four main types: professional competences (primarily relating to job- related knowledge and skills), methodological competences (problem-solving and decision-making skills), social competences (cooperative and communicative skills), and personal competencies (social values, motivations, and attitudes). Lamari (2021), in turn, introduces a somewhat different categorization of competences into technical, behavioral and motivational, cognitive and civic competences, with the latter pertaining to the world and the position of the individual.

Another type of classification scheme differentiates between key competences and specific competences. According to Oleksyn (2006), key competences hold significance for the company, the job and the individual employee, as from the organization’s point of view they represent what the organization excels at, and considering the job they are crucial for performing tasks and duties within a job role. The key competences possessed by employees relate to the employees themselves, encompassing their distinguishing traits. Specific competences, on the other hand, pertain to employees’ features that are indispensable and characteristic for a particular position.

Sidor-Rządkowska (2008), in turn, argues that of the numerous potential classifications, it is most useful from the perspective of company practice to divide competences into company-related (corporate) competences that are common to employees of a given company, professional (vocational) competences that are closely related to the type of work performed, and social competences that are related to the need to establish and maintain contacts with other people.

The increasingly prevalent dichotomy between hard vs soft skills is perhaps the most straightforward classification of competences, adopted across various industries, regardless of their specific nature. Hard skills relate to specific theoretical knowledge and the ability to apply various methods, techniques, tools, procedures, or processes, usually stemming from the acquired education. Soft skills, on the other hand, mainly encompass interpersonal skills, individual predispositions, behavior, and the manner of cooperation with others (Oleksyn, 2011).

The overview provided here of various competence classifications captures only a fraction of the discourse within the academic literature, representing the viewpoints of select scholars. The field is abundant with diverse frameworks and typologies of competences, each offering unique insights and categorizations. For the purposes of this study, competences will be categorized into three distinct groups: social, cognitive, digital, and technical competences (as distinguished by Włoch & Śledziewska, 2023). However, it is important to bear in mind certain inherent limitations of this approach.

Research Methodology

We began our study using the desk research method. In order to explore the research topics from diverse perspectives, this initial phase involved a thorough analysis of existing data, focusing on reviewing the latest available publications, reports, data and other secondary sources. This enabled us to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the future labor market and the anticipated competences expected of employees within it. Desk research may provide important guidance to educational institutions, helping them adapt to the evolving professional landscape.

In the initial stage of the analysis, a total of 47 sources were gathered, comprising 34 Polish-language and 13 English-language materials. Prior to reviewing the secondary data, three research questions were formulated to support the process of analyzing the collected materials, ensuring their relevance to achieving the research objectives:

1. What criteria should be used to evaluate sources of information relevant to the labor market?
2. What are the main changes and trends that are expected in the coming years in terms of employees’ professional competences?
3. According to existing research and reports on the labor market, what are the key competences of the future?

Materials were selected based on their recency (published by 2017), reliability (including a clear description of the methodology for obtaining information, and the credibility and integrity of the author/institution), and relevance. In the selection stage, having analyzed the content of the materials in terms of information regarding requirements or expectations of the competences of future employees, we selected 16 items for the final analysis, including 11 in Polish and 5 in English. The selected reports were characterized by different research approaches, socio-demographic profiles, and time horizons. All of them, however, identified common areas of competence for employees of the future, perceived from different perspectives. Key pieces of information on expected competences were inventoried from these sources and compiled in Table 1 and Figure 1.

This preparatory work laid the groundwork for conducting our empirical primary research, aiming to gather opinions on future labor market competences, particularly from university graduates at the onset of their careers. Given the exploratory nature of the study, semi-structured individual interviews were used, allowing for a high degree of flexibility in question selection and scenario adaptation depending on the course of the conversation. This method facilitated the inclusion of additional questions, not provided for in the scenario, thereby allowing for deeper topic engagement (Mościchowska & Rogoś-Turek, 2019). Two perspectives were adopted for labor market competence analysis: a general perspective, which pertains to the entire economy at both national and European levels, and a sectoral perspective, which arises from the respondent’s industry of employment. A five-year horizon for assessing the labor market was adopted: the evaluation was requested for both the present and the perspective of the next five years. Based on this desk research study, competences were categorized into three main groups: cognitive, social, and technical-technological. These categories were then subjected to a detailed assessment over the two designated periods.

In the initial part of the interview, closed questions were posed to determine which specific questions should be asked next. Conversely, open questions were employed to elicit longer statements, thereby laying the foundation for drawing several insightful conclusions from this study. We inquired about which categories of competences are currently relevant and will be crucial in the future, what competences are lacking among university graduates, which ones will be needed on the labor market, and how business practices could shape the direction of competences taught at universities.

A total of eleven in-depth interviews were conducted, with the selection of participants aimed at capturing a broad spectrum of viewpoints. A detailed description of the research sample is given in the table provided in the Annex to this paper. To ensure inclusivity, all interviews were conducted remotely, either online or by phone, utilizing available automatic transcription methods (MsTeams, Microsoft Word, Zoom), with prior consent obtained from respondents. Interviews were conducted over a five-week period, typically lasting about an hour, scheduled in advance in order to minimize potential disruptions.

We individually familiarized ourselves with all transcripts of the interviews and independently outlined preliminary results. Subsequently, we discussed our findings collectively and formulated a list of synthesized conclusions.

Analysis of Research Results

The analysis of secondary data reveals several key challenge areas in the labor market concerning the expected competences and skills of future employees, particularly in an era characterized by dynamic social, economic and business-related changes. The source materials repeatedly emphasized the importance of cognitive and social competences. Practically all of the analyzed sources emphasized the importance of creative thinking (innovative thinking, unconventional thinking, innovation). The ability to solve problems, including complex problems, emerged as an equally important competence, linked with the frequently mentioned ability to make decisions and take responsibility for them. The vast majority of the reports highlighted the importance of interpersonal competences related to communication and negotiation, and teamwork, across various settings including stationary, virtual, and intercultural teams. Furthermore, dynamic changes in the work environment require the employees to be flexible, able to adapt quickly, and to learn continuously, as emphasized in many of the analyzed materials. Data from the analyzed reports showed that in a world dominated by technology, technical skills, alongside those related to the digital domain, are becoming increasingly essential.

Overall, the review of data in the initial stage of the study, employing the desk research method, clearly indicates that expectations regarding the competences of future employees revolve around the integration of diverse skills, encompassing interpersonal, cognitive, technical and digital abilities. Likewise, flexibility and readiness for continuous development can be key factors in securing a foothold in the future labor market. These findings are summarized in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

The analysis of selected sources facilitated precise planning and execution of the study in the form of semi-structured individual interviews. Consequently, the second stage of the research aimed to clarify the future needs of the labor market for employees and graduates of higher education institutions.

Responses from the respondents regarding the competences to be crucial for the economy in the next five years were quite similar to the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the reports. The respondents underlined the significance of all competences essential for the development of enterprises:

Respondents indicated that the modern labor market is looking for and strongly appreciates, in particular, technical and technological competences, which result from the need to adopt modern technologies in enterprises:

However, it is worth noting an opposing viewpoint, which, given the rapid, not entirely predictable evolution of artificial intelligence, may prove to be valid:

Respondents also pointed out that not every potential employee should possess expert-level technical and technological competences, because in business, it is possible to pursue different career paths with different requirements:

Analytical, critical and creative thinking skills were indicated among the cognitive skills that the labor market will demand in the next five years. The ability to search for and evaluate the quality of data, as well as the correct and independent interpretation of data were emphasized. Such opinions are not surprising, because already in 2020 the World Economic Forum recognized the ability to solve complex problems, critical thinking and creativity as the three most important competences of the future. However, as the respondents admit, graduates lack autonomy in solving problems:

Respondents also noted the importance of responsibility for decisions made, although in regard to young employees who are at the early stages of their careers, they indicated that their expectations as employers are not excessive:

The respondents noticed that the increased expectations of employers toward the competence to assume responsibility may generate risks in the form of higher financial expectations:

The opinions repeatedly referenced the pace of market development and the changes taking place, which were linked by the respondents to the growing demand for interdisciplinary competences from various domains. Dealing with current, complex problems requires broad knowledge, hence the need for more diverse education that combines, on the one hand, technological and engineering knowledge, and on the other hand, economic, psychological, and social expertise:

The modern market generates many opportunities, but also threats that can be predicted and mitigated. According to the respondents, graduates have limited competence to plan and perceive themselves, their careers in the context of an enterprise where certain processes occur. In their opinions, respondents expressed the need for competences of anticipation and a holistic approach to the implementation of tasks:

The respondents approached the skill of risk perception and assessment with caution, indicating that it is an important competence that will continue to be desired in the future, but it must not slow down decision-making processes or translate into the conservatism of a company that fails to capitalize on the emerging opportunities. The competence to anticipate in the world of turmoil and black swans constitutes a considerable value:

The topic of customer orientation and the ability to identify the client’s needs emerged in the interviews. Some respondents saw the value of this competence in the context of the market and quite advanced marketing skills (the needs of an external customer), while others identified it with empathy towards colleagues. According to the participants, monitoring the evolving customer needs, which is the essence of marketing skills, is currently at a high level and no changes in this respect should be expected. Several participants indicated the need to elevate the skills of empathic, attentive approach to internal clients. Cooperation with other employees must be based on openness and responsibility, while the lack of the ability to empathize with colleagues at work diminishes the effectiveness:

Both now and in the future, social skills will be important; the ability to communicate in virtual and multicultural teams, which was acquired intensively during the pandemic, was particularly appreciated among them. Basic competences such as diligence, reliability, listening, and mindfulness were also emphasized. The opinions presented suggest that the accelerated pace of technological progress does not entail the obsolescence of traditional (non-technical) competences:

Respondents also pointed to ethics as an important trait of an employee, the significance of which will continue to grow. However, the opinions were rather normative, that is, they indicated how things should be. Attempting to analyze the genuine needs within this area of competence resulted in the rather gloomy conclusion that there are dual ethical standards: the first being the “employee’s conduct towards the market,” where unethical behavior may be tolerated if it benefits the company, and the second being the “employee’s conduct towards the company,” where any instances of unethical behavior are penalized. Respondents noted that there was no “commitment to duration” among young employees (Moczydłowska, 2021):

Respondents also shared their insights in the context of personal development, self-management and lifelong learning. The collected opinions highlight the importance of these skills, which still do not receive sufficient attention during education or in the workplace:

In addition to those mentioned so far, the competences sought in the future include skills related to presenting and implementing environmentally and socially friendly solutions. Currently, the market interest in such skills is still moderate, but according to the respondents, it is important that such skills be taught at universities. The trend of sustainable development and the circular economy will require new competences based on knowledge of the economic, social and environmental conditions of the market, skills of sustainable project management and a creative attitude towards social innovation. One of the most critical challenges facing businesses is the ESG business area. Increasing competition for “green talent” is evident – 74% of global employers are currently or planning to actively recruit candidates with “green skills” (ManpowerGroup 2023). The respondents expect that future graduates will be able to create solutions with environmental and social impact. However, they do not advocate for adding new subjects to the curricula, but rather see the necessity of enriching the educated competences with this new context:

Deficiencies in the competences of university graduates relate primarily to project management, the ability to identify processes in business project management. The respondents indicate that graduates are able to perform partial analyzes but have a limited ability to think holistically. In this context, some have called for the enrichment of education in engineering fields with economic content and for the supplementation of economic disciplines with knowledge from other areas of science. Due to the shortage of certain specialists on the market, respondents advocate for greater openness of universities in terms of offered courses and for enriching curricula with content taught by practitioners:

What is more, the conducted interviews reveal a rather specific outline of the competences of future graduates required by the labor market. The respondents expect further acceleration of market change, which will require flexible adaptation to changing situations and continuous improvement of skills. The new employees will enter the labor market knowing they cannot stop learning, the end of their university studies is simultaneously the beginning of their learning in other forms and training systems. Expectations regarding technical and technological competence will increase. It is anticipated that technologies will advance to the extent that not only knowledge of their use will be required, but also practical application skills in implementing advanced business solutions that will increase employees’ efficiency will be needed. The opinions of the respondents indicated the desire to acquire specific technological skills, but in a different form than as a few months of postgraduate studies. The respondents’ statements emphasized the need to include the aspect of sustainable development in future competences. The transition to a circular economy will result in a greater demand for the knowledge and skills to cope with such a transformation.

Conclusions

Our study, based on both desk research and in-depth interviews, has yielded a valuable compilation of competences of tomorrow, the thorough analysis of which can offer crucial guidance for educational institutions, in particular business universities, aiding them to adapt to the evolving professional landscape. Table 2 lists the most frequently indicated job competences, considering a 5-year perspective, based on both the desk research and in-depth interviews.

Our findings indicate that key competences for the future constitute a complex and multidimensional set, encompassing both soft and hard (technological) areas. Key competences will include the ability to adapt to change, flexibility, and openness to new challenges. Both lists point to the conviction that employees of the future must be versatile, having not only technical abilities but also interpersonal skills and being characterized by an ethical attitude. Consensus on the role and importance of lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation is evident in the results of both desk research and in-depth interviews. Similarly, critical thinking is crucial in both compilations. Juxtaposition of the results highlights the importance of creativity, innovative thinking and problem-solving skills in a dynamic business environment. Interpersonal competences, such as effective communication, negotiation, and collaboration are important in stationary work and increasingly significant while working in virtual and cross-cultural teams, which was especially emphasized in the interviews. In the face of emerging technologies, the research shows the importance of digital skills, managing new technologies and flexible approach to change in the digital environment. The results also demonstrate the need to focus on key competences that will be sought in the future on the labor market:

• solving complex problems, including those related to sustainable development
• enhanced analytical skills
• responsibility for the decisions made.

Effective cultivation of these skills requires adjustment of curricula and close collaboration between practitioners and universities.
Education systems struggle to respond to the new needs of the labor market. There are many factors that prevent rapid reactions from the higher education institutions in terms of shaping the competences of their graduates. The main external barriers to innovation in education programs are the lack of cooperation between academia and business practice and the mismatch between the pace of technological evolution and changes in educational institutions. The opinions of our respondents indicate a great need for cooperation between universities and practice in the field of designing curricula, conducting classes, practical trainings and internships. Active cooperation with business representatives and employers should be a priority. Universities should actively cooperate with representatives of employers, invite and engage them in designing educational programs, and what is more, adapt the content to real market needs. A lack of dialog between universities and businesses will lead to an increase in the gap between competences and labor market needs, which in turn will affect the growth of educational tourism and the search for valued competences abroad (educational tourism). From the perspective of the university, possible problems with the evaluation of the didactic process carried out in cooperation with practitioners cannot be overlooked in this context.

The opinions of practitioners reinforce the ongoing discussion on the role of economic universities in shaping the competences of the graduates as future employees/managers or researchers. The high quality of education at modern universities is an stimulus for and guarantee of growth and economic development of the country. The key issue, however, is the utility of knowledge and competences developed in the course of education, as they are the passport to the labor market. Most of the respondents favor greater instrumentalization of education, pragmatism of competences, which stands in opposition to legislative changes in Poland and the system of financing higher education in recent years. The results of the research indicate that universities should be more focused on the competences of future managers, not academics.

Education programs (majors and specialties) should be designed in a flexible manner, allowing rapid adaptation to new trends, technologies or actual needs of the industry. Therefore, it becomes necessary to systematically monitor trends and innovations in particular industries in order to adapt the content of the curricula to the expectations of employers on an ongoing basis. The introduction of modern technologies and innovative teaching methods – i.e., e-learning platforms, simulations or virtual reality – can significantly enrich the learning process and may be crucial in preparing the employees of the future.

The main internal obstacles associated with organization and people are rigid, long-term, and burdened with bureaucracy operations related to designing curricula, unprepared staff, and lack of motivation among students and staff members themselves. Therefore, it is important to launch plans to overcome these obstacles and promote innovation at universities , including the implementation of modern teaching methods – such as Problem Base Learning or tutoring – which are more effective in imparting skills of design thinking.

The education sector needs to undergo a large-scale transformation process to meet the demands of a turbulent market and reduce the threat of climate change. Nowadays, the role of competences in shaping sustainable development and social cohesion as well as in the circular economy is being emphasized more and more strongly. It is therefore worth considering which competences are most important from the perspective of sustainable development and actions to prevent climate change, and how to teach the design and implementation of social innovations.

Promoting a culture of continuous learning and self-development should become an integral part of educational programs so that future graduates are prepared to keep up with dynamic changes in industries and sectors. What is more, the need for lifelong learning points to the necessity to develop an educational offer for graduates – courses, training (apart from MBA, postgraduate studies) – of varying degrees of intensity and subject matter. The long period between completing university studies and the University of the Third Age still remains to be effectively harnessed.

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Emotion is a response to the cognitive appraisal of stimuli from the environment and is an integral part of human behavior (Frayn et al., 2018). Consumers often engage emotions in decision-making processes (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Zaltman, 2003; Damasio, 1994), including food choices where emotions frequently guide behavior (Godet et al., 2022). Research has confirmed the link between emotional states and food choice and consumption (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Most studies in this area focus on the relationship between negative emotions and eating behaviors (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). However, some researchers point to a connection between positive emotions and food consumption (Devonport et al., 2019; Reichenberger et al., 2020; Ljubičić et al., 2023). Therefore, the term “emotional eating” is often used to describe increased food consumption as a reaction to emerging emotions, both positive and negative. Emotional eating affects both overweight and obese individuals, as well as those maintaining a normal weight. It has been found that the latter consume less food in response to emotions than overweight or obese individuals (Frayn et al., 2018). Emotional eating has also been proven to be positively associated with waist circumference, abdominal obesity, body mass index (BMI), and obesity according to the percentage of body fat (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). It is important to emphasize that overweight and obesity have many secondary health consequences, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and an increased risk of certain cancers (Obesity and Overweight, n.d.). They also constitute a significant economic burden on society (Scarborough et al., 2011; Shimul et al., 2021).

Regarding negative emotions, their appearance triggers a range of physiological reactions that can either promote a lack of appetite or reduce food intake, or increase food consumption (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). High stimulation arousal in response to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anger) may reduce consumption, while negative emotions felt at a moderate level may increase it (Reichenberger et al., 2020). This has been especially verified about stress. Although stress is most commonly viewed as a negative stimulus, it can occasionally be interpreted as a positive response that stimulates and encourages activity (Ljubičić et al., 2023). In situations of strong, sudden stress, norepinephrine inhibits appetite, while in chronic stress, cortisol stimulates it (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Empirical evidence has shown that eating habits are modified under the influence of stress (Borsellino et al., 2020).

Studies on emotional eating behaviors suggest that negative mood, sadness, tension, and emotional instability precede an increase in food consumption (Devonport et al., 2019). However, stress, boredom, and depression were the emotions most often identified as those affecting higher food intake (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). It has been reported that food consumption distracts a person from experiencing negative emotions (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022), and is also a way to fill the void that can arise in situations of sadness, depression, social isolation, or other stressful life events (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Negative emotions strongly associated with eating behaviors include anxiety, sadness, loneliness, worry, boredom, anger, stress, and depression (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). Depression is linked with stress, negative mood, loneliness, and social isolation, all of which contribute to emotional eating (Ljubičić et al., 2023). Additionally, tendencies to experience boredom, aggression, and anger are positively associated with emotional eating (Devonport et al., 2019).

Research indicates that positive emotions play a significant role in enhancing food intake (Reichenberger et al., 2020; Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022). It has been observed that positive moods are closely linked to socialization and food consumption. Specifically, individuals tend to experience greater enjoyment and prolong their mealtime when dining with familiar and amicable companions, leading to increased food consumption. Furthermore, past studies suggest that people often opt for healthier food choices when experiencing positive emotions (Li et al., 2021).

As indicated, both positive and negative emotions influence an increase in food consumption, yet negative emotions are one of the most important causes of excessive consumption and emotional eating (Reichenberger et al., 2020).

Studies have shown that emotions affect not only the increase in consumption, but also the type of food that consumers reach for under their influence (Devonport et al., 2019). Individuals who engage in emotional eating tend to snack more frequently (Rachmawati et al., 2019). Snacking is eating food, often without hunger, between main meals. Emotional eating is positively associated with higher consumption of tasty, high-energy, sweet, and high-fat snacks (Rachmawati et al., 2019). This pattern is observed in both men and women across different life stages (Fuente Gonzales et al., 2022), particularly regarding increased consumption of fast food, salty snacks, sweet high-fat foods, or high-energy foods such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, ice cream, chocolate and its derivatives, candies, and artificially sweetened beverages (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). Stress and negative emotions often lead to the consumption of high-energy, nutrient-poor foods (Devonport et al., 2019). It has been proven that consuming tasty dishes (usually rich in sugar or fat) provides immediate pleasure and reward (positive affective responses), which can lessen the impact of negative emotions (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). As studies show overweight or obese individuals prefer sweet-tasting snacks (e.g., cakes, cookies, biscuits) or sweet and milky drinks, while underweight individuals tend to choose cooked snacks, fruits, and dairy products (Rachmawati et al., 2019).

When it comes to how our emotions affect what we eat, it is interesting to note that posi-tive emotions can lead to both healthy and unhealthy eating habits. For instance, research by Moss et al. (2021) found that positive emotions tend to kickstart the consumption of nutritious foods like fruits. On the flip side, another study (Evers et al., 2013) revealed that positive emotions can also prompt indulgence in unhealthy snacks. Age plays a role too. Among chil-dren, positive emotions seem to correlate with more unhealthy snack consumption, while among young adults, negative emotions are more closely linked to such behavior (Moss et al., 2021). Parents also influence what children eat, especially in terms of sweet snacks. For instance, they might reward good behavior or achievements with sugary treats. Furthermore, snacks can serve as a way to manage behavior and emotions during interactions between chil-dren and their parents (Jansen et al., 2021).

Changes in food consumption behaviors due to fluctuations in emotional states may be induced by situations or events that go beyond an individual’s daily routine. The COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, may have altered consumers’ emotional states and thereby changed consumer behaviors (Borsellino et al., 2020). In the literature, food choices are recognized as dynamic and evolving throughout life; they are also considered quite stable and largely driven by habits, especially over shorter periods. Significant changes or turning points in food choice patterns are usually initiated by important life events. Research suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions affecting daily life have caused, at least temporarily, changes in the patterns of food purchasing and consumption for a large share of consumers (Jansen et al., 2021).

Some research findings (Ben Hassen et al., 2020; Ben Hassen et al., 2021) have indicated that some individuals reduced their consumption of unhealthy food (e.g., sweets, desserts, cookies, and biscuits) during the pandemic, adopting healthier eating habits, particularly seeking to strengthen their immune system. However, this trend varied across countries. For instance, in Italy, Denmark, Norway, and the United States, there was an increase in the consumption of highly processed, high-fat, or high-sugar foods (including chocolate, chips, and snacks). This was more common among women, who tended to eat more food, explained by the fact that women were more depressed, stressed, and restless, leading to emotional eating (Li et al., 2021). Emotions, as a predictor of the mental health of society, also account for changes in eating habits during the pandemic. Studies on the scale of negative emotions among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic have reported the prevalence of stress at 29.6%, anxiety 31.9%, and depression 33.7% (Salari et al., 2020). Social isolation, uncertainty, and the potential adverse effects of illness significantly altered eating behaviors, increasing the scale of dysfunctional eating habits (such as binge eating, emotional eating, impulsive or compulsive eating) as well as the purchase of comfort foods (unhealthy junk foods).

Considering the role of emotions in changing the level of food consumption, including the propensity to reach for snacks, we resolved to analyze this issue in more detail. The aim of this article is to verify how different emotional states determine food consumption, including the desire to reach for snacks. The following research hypotheses were formulated:

H1: Individuals who increase their food consumption in response to negative emotions (NE) rate their financial situation worse than other sample segments (PE, WE, BE).

H2: Individuals who increase their food consumption in response to negative emotions (NE) have a negative health profile characterized by:

a.a poorer assessment of general health,
b.greater weight gain,
c.BMI above the norm,
d.less physical activity.

H3: The tendency to reach for snacks differs between sample segments depending on the emotional state experienced and the flavor of the snack:

a.During positive emotions, PE consumers are more likely to reach for salty snacks (chips, snacks, crackers, pretzels) than other segments (NE, WE, BE).
b.During positive emotions, PE consumers are more likely to reach for sweet snacks (cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, candy bars) than other segments (NE, WE, BE).
c.During negative emotions, NE consumers are more likely to reach for salty snacks (chips, snacks, crackers, pretzels) than other segments (PE, WE, BE).
d.During negative emotions, NE consumers are more likely to reach for sweet snacks (cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, candy bars) than other segments (PE, WE, BE).

Methodology

To achieve the set objectives, a nationwide study was conducted using the Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI) method on a representative sample of 707 respondents who had purchased food. The samples were representative for Polish adults citizens according to gender, age, and place of residence. The research was conducted by a specialised research agency certified by ESOMAR (European Society for Opinion and Market Research). The structure of the research sample, based on selected socio-demographic characteristics as well as physical condition and health status, is presented in Table 1. The study was positively reviewed by the Research Ethics Committee for research involving human participants at the Poznań University of Economics and Business.

In constructing research tools, a method commonly used in consumer behavior sciences, the masked method (deception), was employed. This means that the actual purpose of the research was concealed from its participants (Brzeziński, 2004). Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire consisting of fourteen questions in the main part and ten questions in the expanded metric part. The results presented in the article come from this study and are part of a larger research project concerning the emotional determinants of food consumption. The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

1.to analyze the consumer profile based on socio-demographic characteristics in the context of changes in consumption under the influence of emotions,

2.to identify factors differentiating the tendency to reach for snacks when experiencing emotions (positive and negative).

To verify the research hypotheses, two types of snacks were distinguished: salty (chips, snacks, crackers, pretzels) and sweet (cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, candy bars).

A statistical cluster analysis (k-means) was performed to check if there were segments among the respondents showing increased food consumption depending on the emotions experienced (including the valence of emotions – negative/positive emotions). This data exploration method divided respondents into homogeneous groups based on their answers so that each group contained individuals whose responses were similar. The cluster analysis was based on responses to questions about the impact of the emotional states experienced by the respondent on the amount of food consumed. The EMAQ scale (Emotional Appetite Questionnaire) was used to determine the emotional attitude toward food consumption, which has been validated and then developed in many studies (Bilici et al., 2020; Bourdier et al., 2017; Geliebter & Aversa, 2003; Nolan et al., 2010). Positive emotional states such as being happy, relaxed, cheerful, enthusiastic, and self-satisfied were distinguished, as well as negative states like being sad, bored, bad, restless, frustrated, tired, depressed, and scared.

Basic descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) were calculated to compare the results for each group, considering the criterion of increased food consumption during positive/negative emotional experiences.

Appropriate statistical tests were conducted for the verification of the research hypotheses: one-way ANOVA for data with a normal distribution, and the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test for data without a normal distribution. Post-hoc tests were conducted where appropriate. The significance level was set at p=0.05. SPSS Statistics software was used to perform the analyses.

Results

Emotional determinats of increased consumption

Cluster analysis showed that the increase in food consumption by respondents differs depending on the emotional states they experience. K-means analysis allowed respondents to be classified into 4 segments (Table 2). The first of these are people who eat more depending on emotions, but irrespective of their valence (WE). In other words, experiencing both positive and negative emotions determines their increased consumption. The second and third segments were made up of people for whom increased consumption is already dependent on the valence of emotions: people who eat more in states of emotional tension (NE), which means that they declared increased food consumption under the influence of negative emotions, such as being sad or frustrated, and people who eat more during positive emotional experiences (PE), which means that they showed increased consumption under the influence of positive emotional states (e.g., being happy and/or relaxed). The last segment was made up of people who do not show increased consumption while experiencing emotions (BE).

For the vast majority of respondents (78%), feeling certain emotions contributes to an increase in food consumption. Almost half of the respondents (53%) reported increased consumption when in a state of emotional tension, especially when feeling sad (x̄=5.46), lonely (x̄=5.45), or frustrated (x̄=5.35). The NE segment is mostly composed of people with secondary education (43.5%) living in urban areas (63.2%, mainly in cities with a population of 20,000–50,000). These respondents also indicated that they have large households, with 60.3% having at least three members (26.7% – three members, 20.0% – four, 8.5% – five, and 5.1% – six+). Women more frequently reported increased consumption in response to negative emotions than men (54.4% women, 45.6% men).

Consumers who increase their food intake due to positive emotions represent 13% of the study participants. They report the highest increase when feeling happy (average x̄=7.76), cheerful (x̄=7.34), and relaxed (x̄=7.32). These consumers are primarily city residents with secondary education and are urban residents (64.5%, including cities of 20,000–50,000 and over 200,000 inhabitants). Almost 70% reported that their household consists of at least three members (21.5% – three members, 25.8% – four members, 12.9% – five members, and 9.7% – six+). Men are more likely than women to report increased consumption due to positive emotions (men: 54.8%, women: 45.2%).

For about one in every eight respondents (12%), the valence of emotions does not affect their food consumption; that is, they report increased consumption regardless of whether the emotions are positive or negative. The emotions associated with the highest increase in consumption include feeling depressed (negative emotion; mean x̄ =7.05), enthusiastic (positive emotion; x̄ =7.02), and lonely (negative emotion; x̄ =6.95). The WE segment mainly consists of individuals with secondary education (44.7%), living in both villages and cities (45.9% and 54.1%, respectively). A significant majority of these respondents have large households: 35.3% have three-person households, 24.7% four-person, 11.8% five-person, and 7.1% have households of six or more. The increase in consumption, independent of emotional valence, is reported equally by women (49.4%) and men (50.6%).

One in five participants (22%) reported that experiencing emotions, whether negative or positive, does not lead to increased food consumption. This segment is largely composed of individuals with secondary education (40.9%), residing in cities, predominantly those with populations between 20,000 to 50,000. Women (55.2%) more frequently reported that their consumption does not increase due to emotional states, as compared to men (44.8%).

Characteristics defining the health status and economic situation of the consumer as factors differentiating sample segments

To verify hypotheses H1 and H2, a one-way ANOVA analysis was conducted. The analysis showed that factors such as consumers’ subjective perception of their financial situation (H1; F=3.480; p=0.016), subjective assessment of overall health (H2a; F=3.356; p=0.019), and weight change during the pandemic (since March 2020) (H2b; F=7.086; p<0.001) differentiate respondents’ susceptibility to emotional influence on increased food consumption (Table 3, Figure 1).

The segment of individuals who increase consumption under the influence of negative emotions (NE) evaluated their financial situation as poor (mean x̄=2.24) and overall health state as low (x̄=2.46), with a frequent declaration of weight gain during the pandemic (x̄=2.15). Conversely, the segment influenced by positive emotions (PE) rated their financial situation (x̄=2.44) and health (x̄=2.63) higher, reporting weight loss or stability during the pandemic (x̄=1.97). Those influenced by emotions regardless of valence (WE) rated their financial and health situation slightly worse, with the highest weight gain reported during the pandemic (x̄=2.39). Consumers not influenced by emotions (BE) had a more positive view of their financial status (x̄=2.42) and the best health state (x̄=2.67), with no significant weight changes in the pandemic (x̄=2.06). One-way ANOVA indicated that other factors like BMI index or physical activity did not differentiate the segments significantly (respectively: H2c: F=1.914; p=0.126 and H2d: F=0.454; p=0.714).

Positive emotions and the desire to eat snacks (salty/sweet)

The study further examined whether belonging to a particular segment of the sample, meaning the relationship between experiencing emotions and their valence, correlates with an increase in overall food consumption and a propensity to eat snacks. This relationship was investigated regarding the emotional state felt (positive for H3ab, negative for H3cd) and the taste of the snacks (salty for H3ac, sweet for H3bd).

For those experiencing positive emotions, a notable difference was seen in the consumption of salty snacks among the segments. The PE segment reported often consuming salty snacks (mean x̄=2.58) when feeling positive emotions. They tend to eat salty snacks such as chips, snacks, crackers, and pretzels more than other segments. The WE group also frequently consumes salty snacks when experiencing positive emotions, though less so than the PE group (mean x̄=2.40). The BE and NE segments showed the least tendency to consume salty snacks when in a positive emotional state, with x̄=2.15 and x̄=2.13 respectively. The one-way ANOVA analysis revealed a statistically significant impact of emotional conditions on the overall consumption of the tendency to eat salty snacks when experiencing positive emotions (H=24.067; p<0.001), thereby confirming hypothesis H3a.

Similarly, the results shape the propensity for consuming sweet snacks while experiencing positive emotions. While feeling positive emotions, the PE segment declares a high desire to consume cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, or candy bars x̄=2.77. Their inclination towards eating sweet snacks is higher than other segments. While experiencing positive emotions, individuals belonging to the WE groups also frequently reach for sweet snacks (though less often than PE, x̄=2.65). Conversely, the NE and BE segments less frequently show a desire to consume cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, or candy bars, respectively: x̄=2.41 and x̄=2.37. To verify hypothesis H3b, a one-way ANOVA analysis was performed, which showed a statistically significant influence of emotional factors on reaching for sweet snacks while experiencing positive emotions (H=19.659; p<0.001). Hypothesis H3b was therefore confirmed.

Negative emotions and desire for snacks (salty/sweet)

Next, we examined whether the negative emotional state differentiates the propensity to reach for snacks (salty/sweet) among the specified sample segments (WE, NE, PE, BE).

Consumers in the PE and WE segments declare a high inclination to reach for salty snacks while experiencing negative emotions (respectively: x̄=2.47 and x̄=2.45) (Table 5). They admit to frequently consuming chips, snacks, crackers, and pretzels when in an emotionally tension state. The NE group showed a significantly lower inclination to consume these snacks. This segment declared rarely reaching for salty snacks (x̄=2.21). Experiencing negative emotions also affects the consumption of chips, snacks, crackers, and pretzels by BE individuals. They exhibited the lowest inclination to reach for salty snacks (x̄=2.14). To verify hypothesis H3c, a one-way ANOVA analysis was conducted, which showed a statistically significant influence of emotional conditions on reaching for salty snacks in an emotional tense state (F=3.743; p=0.11). Despite the statistically significant relationship between variables, hypothesis H3c was refuted, because it was the PE segment (rather than the NE segment) that exhibited the greatest desire for snack consumption.

In a state of emotional tension, consumers show a high inclination to reach for sweet snacks. The WE, PE, and NE groups often reach for cookies, chocolates, candies, ice cream, and candy bars, showing respective values of: x̄=2.66; x̄=2.63, and x̄=2.53. Consumers who did not declare an increase in consumption under the influence of emotions (BE) indicated that experiencing negative emotions rarely affects their consumption of sweet snacks (x̄=2.36). To check for differences between segments and the consumption of sweet snacks while experiencing negative emotions, a Kruskal-Wallis test was carried out, which did not show a statistically significant influence of emotional conditions on reaching for sweet snacks (F=3.743; p=0.11). Hypothesis H3d was therefore refuted.

Discussion

Unhealthy snacks, rich in energy, sugar, and salt, have a negative impact on consumers’ health, and their excessive consumption significantly contributes to the rise in overweight and obesity in society (Almoraie Karlsson et al., 2021). It seems that promoting healthy snacks with high nutritional content through education is important for improving health and reducing the risk of diseases, but it may be ineffective due to the emotional motivations for their consumption. The results of our study confirmed not only the emotional patterns of food consumption but also the emotional nature of snack consumption. Both positive and negative emotions shape food consumption, but negative ones have a greater impact, consistent with the findings of Saine and Zhao (2021). Cluster analysis revealed four patterns of emotional eating, three of which (WE, NE, and PE), covering over 78% of the respondents, indicate the influence of emotions (Figure 1). The most negative emotions influencing food consumption in all three segments were loneliness (ranking 2nd in WE and NE, and 3rd in PE) and sadness (ranking 3rd and 1st, respectively, in WE and NE). These emotions were often highlighted as negative consequences of the pandemic, leading to increased consumption of unhealthy snacks. This suggests that the negative impact of the pandemic may have been one of the factors increasing appetite and food consumption. Individuals experiencing negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and pandemic-related stress were more likely to reach for snacks as a way of coping with these emotions. Thus consumption could serve as an emotional function and as a coping mechanism during challenging situations / facing difficulties.

Experiencing emotions leads to a greater craving for sweet snacks than for salty ones. The sweet taste of snacks is perceived as a way to soothe negative feelings and a source of pleasure. Wołosiak et al. (2016) suggest that consuming sugars and other sweet substances additionally provides pleasure due to the production of endorphins, often referred to as happiness hormones. Sweetness can act as a motivating factor for consumption, hence it is reasonable to assume that this attribute will play a crucial role in consumer communications. Associating a product with sweetness may translate into its being preferred and selected. Decoupling the sweet taste from snacks opens up new avenues for promoting more beneficial snacking options.

Linking specific categories of snacks to emotions being experienced may have serious consequences in terms of reinforcing unhealthy dietary behaviors. Emotions are treated as triggers for certain behaviors, which over time become habits. Snack consumption may be tied to habits acquired in childhood and youth, then perpetuated in adulthood and maturity, and passed on to subsequent generations. Using sweet snacks as a reward for good behavior or consolation for a sad child create a conditioned response, in which the young consumer learns such behavior and acquires a routine. Therefore, it is crucial to promote healthy dietary patterns among parents and children in emotional contexts, based on healthy snacks and shifting the narrative around food discourse (so that food serves neither as a reward, nor as a punishment).

Research has shown a strong link between emotions and snack consumption, revealing certain characteristic patterns associated with consumer profiles. We found that financial situation, health status, and weight change are associated with membership in distinct clusters (Figure 2). In our study, dissatisfaction with one’s financial situation, health status, and weight gain were predictors of belonging to the WE and NE groups, while a positive profile of these features translated into membership in the PE group.

The assessment of one’s financial situation may influence behaviors in response to stressful life situations. Individuals who rate their financial situation worse may be more prone to negative emotions related to financial problems. Food consumption could serve as a form of emotional compensation or coping mechanism for life difficulties. Additionally, lower socioeconomic status could limit access to other stress coping mechanisms, increasing the attractiveness of eating as a way to alleviate negative feelings.

Individuals who rated their financial situation worse may also be more prone to be overweight and face health problems associated with excessive food consumption. This can lead to more serious health problems such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. There is a need for targeted interventions to support individuals with low financial self-esteem in managing emotions and coping with stress in a healthier way than through excessive food consumption. Individuals with poorer financial self-esteem may also be more susceptible to compulsive food consumption as a way to cope with negative emotions.

Subjective assessment of one’s health status and weight gain significantly influences dietary behaviors in situations of negative emotions. Individuals who felt that their health had deteriorated during the pandemic more often reached for snacks as a way to cope with stress and anxiety related to illness. This suggests that worsening health may be a risk factor for increased consumption of unhealthy food during periods of emotional stress.

Moreover, individuals who experienced weight gain during the pandemic tended to reach for snacks as a form of emotional compensation. This behavior may be related to lower self-esteem and greater psychological burden associated with weight gain. Weight gain may be a risk factor for increased snack consumption as a coping mechanism for stress.

Understanding these relationships is crucial for developing effective nutritional and mental health strategies, especially during times of health and emotional crises. Further research should focus on identifying the mechanisms underlying these relationships and developing interventions aimed at improving mental health and dietary habits during challenging times, such as pandemics.

Research has shown a significant association between product positioning and visibility in stores, price promotions, and snack consumption (Luick et al., 2023; Piernas et al., 2022; Ravensbergen et al., 2015). While our study did not address this, examining how emotions are influenced at the point of purchase through product availability and presentation could be a valuable direction for future research.

One limitation of our study was its focus on a specific demographic group (adults) and the categorization of snacks limited solely to unhealthy food, characterized by a binary taste designation (sweet/salty). In future research, it would be valuable to include other groups such as children, and adolescents, and also consider a wider variety of types of snacks.

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Public universities are facing financial difficulties, in particular, the drop in funding scientific research and development works is alarming. In the face of lacking funds and the funding application procedure being sometimes cumbersome, university employees search for alternative funding sources. This paper constitutes a presentation of the theoretical and practical use of crowdfunding platforms as an alternative source of crowdfunding in higher education that integrates the academic community around common goals. This funding model known for over 30 years is used also to support the universities’ activity in conducting various types of research, spreading knowledge, engaging in sports and hobby-related or generally understood entrepreneurial activity. At Polish universities crowdfunding is not widespread, even though it could, beyond the traditional funding system, ensure support for many necessary initiatives, build a community and strengthen the positive image of educational institutions.

Using the available academic literature and the case study method, we assessed factors determining the success in crowdfunding, while indicating issues and limitations resulting from the context of a non-profit institution that significantly determines the project specifics and success. Based on the case of GOuep.pl crowdfunding platform, we presented the essence, scope of activity and the fundraisings organised, and discussed the factors affecting the success or failure of projects. The experience in implementing the crowdfunding platform project at Poznań University of Economics and Business should foster crowdfunding awareness, which constitutes an innovative method to fund university undertakings.

The Essence of Crowdfunding

Crowdfunding is a neologism which was built from two English words 'crowd’ and 'funding’. In simpler terms it may be described as 'financing by a crowd’. It is the essence of crowdfunding, where 'the crowd’, that is Internet users, provides financial support for a variety of projects posted on crowdfunding platforms. The unique feature of the community of Internet donors is that it is compiled of individuals and organisations that relate to the project, have convergent goals and ideologies, and show similar enthusiasm towards the project. 'The crowd’ does not necessarily live in the same geographic area, neither is it connected by a preference for Internet platforms (Hassna, 2022). The term 'crowdfunding’ spread in Poland and is used on a day-to-day basis. Apart from 'the crowdfunding’ notion, another term used in Poland alternatively to express the essence of this form of providing financial support is 'financing by community’.

The beginning of crowdfunding was in the 1990s. At that time the 'Marillion’ music band asked its fans for financial support for a planned concert tour. According to researchers examining the matter, this was the first case of crowdfunding. Several years after this event, the first crowdfunding platform was launched in the United States, namely www.artisshare.net, dedicated to the artistic field. Nevertheless, 2008, when indiegogo.com and kickstarter.com platforms were launched, is viewed as the beginning of the dynamic growth of this financing method (Godziszewski, 2019). Till date, both platforms are recognised as the world’s largest crowdfunding platforms.

By the end of 2022, no unique, official definition of crowdfunding had been adopted. The first attempts of defining this phenomenon appeared in the beginning of the 21st century. At that time, Howe (2006) defined the term 'crowdsourcing’ and proposed CrowdFunding as one of its types. Other authors indicate that the first to introduce this term was Sullivan, who wrote in 2006 that '… funding from the crowd is the base of which all else depends on and is built on. So, crowd-funding is an accurate term to help me explain the core…’ (Dziuba, 2015, p. 9) In the subsequent years, the authors focused on defining this phenomenon while emphasising various aspects of its functioning (Malinowski & Giełzak, 2015, p. 24-25). In Poland, the first attempts to define crowdfunding were made by Król and Dziuba. The first of them, in 2013 came up with a definition indicating that, crowdfunding is a 'method of raising and allocating a capital donated for developing a given undertaking in return for a particular benefit that engages a wide group of capital donors, is characterized by the use of teleinformatic technologies, lower entry barrier and better transactional conditions than the methods available in the market’ (Pieniążek, 2014, p. 5). Two years later, Dziuba showed two approaches for crowdfunding. In the broader approach, he defined crowdfunding as 'any form of raising financial resources through a computer network (Internet), or with the use of social media.’ In the narrower approach, he emphasised the meaning of 'the process where, e.g. businessmen, artists or non-profit organizations raise funds for projects, undertakings, or organizations, based on the support of many people (of the Internet 'crowd’) who collectively donate money for such projects, undertakings, etc. or invest in them’ (Dziuba, 2015, p. 11).

Looking from a wider perspective, one may identify certain phenomena and processes that constitute a basis for the development of crowdfunding (Brunello, 2016, p. 30):

• It operates at the intersection of new economic forms and social networks;
• It is developing thanks to the formation of new economic communities based on horizontal funding; 􀁺 It activates society to achieve common goals;
• It uses technological achievements and strategies enabling individuals or groups to obtain the financial resources needed to implement their projects.

Taking into consideration various opinions on approaching crowdfunding definition, one may indicate certain features that remain constant and stable, which makes them the most important determinants in defining crowdfunding (Król 2013; Malinowski & Giełzak, 2015):

• The fundraising is organised on the Internet, through a crowdfunding platform;
• The project beneficiary is described in detail;
• The goal and the amount of fundraising are precisely determined;
• The fundraising has a closed-project character with a specified starting and ending date;
• The support provided by donors is always financial;
• The fundraising has an open nature, that is, the payment may be made by anyone from any location and in any amount;
• The funders may (but do not have to) receive various kinds of prizes in return for their support.

As the presented funding model for various projects developed, Dziuba (2015, p. 22-23) recommended a typology where he distinguished four basic crowdfunding models and sub-models. The first, and the most popular model is the donation model, the core of which is raising funds for a determined goal, including charity goals. This model may assume donors are not being awarded (charity model) or being awarded a form of nonfinancial reward (known as the sponsor model or the model based on additional services). The platforms operating in the donation model are the most common in Poland (Pluszyńska & Szopa, 2018, p. 41). The second is a lending model (also called debt crowdfunding), which consists in offering loans while omitting traditional financial institutions. They usually

constitute direct social lending or microloans. The next, third model, also called the investment-type model, offers space for investors to allocate their free financial resources to certain undertakings, and expect a return on this investment, among others, in the form of a share in future income from the sales of goods, services or share in profits. In this model, the author distinguished numerous sub-models, depending on the form of gratification expected by the donor. The last, fourth basic crowdfunding model, called the hybrid model, merges the models listed above into one model, taking into consideration all previously mentioned models or selected ones, both in the form of horizontal integration (merging among models) or vertical integration (merging among sub-models).

Within donation crowdfunding, which constitutes the subject matter of this paper, there is a significant distinction to be made that refers to the operation of the platform rather than the adopted model, and takes into account whether the raised amount is obtained or not. There are two solutions available. Some platforms use the solution 'all-or-nothing’, which means that the beneficiary obtains the raised funds only if the total of all donations reaches the financial goal assumed for the project. In this case, if the financial goal is not reached within a predetermined time limit, the payments are returned to funders’ accounts. In the second solution 'keep-itall’ when the project is finished, the project initiator receives the raised amount, regardless of whether the financial goal was achieved or not (Brunello, 2016, p. 42).

Crowdfunding in Poland

Crowdfunding is one of the most dynamically developing alternative funding forms, also in Poland, where 2021 turned out to be a recordbreaking year for crowdfunding (Bandura, n.d.). The Poles organise and finance a variety of fundraisings published on crowdfunding platforms, such as charity, business, science, social issues-related and individual ones, in order to pursue a hobby or passion (Crowdfunding w Polsce na fali, 2021). It is difficult to find the exact statistics indicating the number of crowdfunding platforms operating in Poland. However, according to experts, several dozens of such platforms, including all the types described above, operate in the country. The greatest diversity of projects may be found on platforms of general purpose (including zrzutka.pl; wspieram.to), where projects in various fields are posted (including those related to travels, animals, sports, culture, but also charitable fundraisings). Others are typically charitable platforms (among others Siepomaga.pl) with projects related to supporting individuals in need (e.g. fight against disease, rehabilitation), charity organisations or helping animals. Equity (e.g. beesfund.com) or crowd-investment (e.g. crowdway.pl) platforms represent another category of platforms enabling interested individuals to invest in various projects, often in return for shares in a given undertaking. In the years 2014–2017, the average monthly amount contributed by Poles to crowdfunding equalled 278,000 zlotys, and in 2021 it was 60 times higher (Szymański, 2022).

The value of the entire crowdfunding sector, excluding the social lending sector, was nearly 1.4 billion zlotys. Donation crowdfunding constituted the largest part of the Polish market (e.g. nearly 250 million PLN were raised on the zrzutka.pl platform only in 2021). 2022 was equally successful. Crowdfunding was worth 1.1 billion zlotys, and Zrzutka.pl — the leader in the sector achieved a record value of financial resources raised with online fundraisings during 1 year, with dynamics of over 27%. The highest percentage-based growth in the recent years occurred in equity crowdfunding, which skyrocketed by over 4,900% in Poland in the years 2016-2021. However, since early 2022 the platforms that were previously leading in development dynamics in the field, have been facing a harder period (Duszczyk, 2023). The crowdlending sector, which is the sector of social lending, has been developing equally dynamically. Its value at the end of 2021 exceeded 2 billion zlotys (Bandura, n.d.). The maturity of the crowdfunding market in Poland is reflected by the fact that platforms dedicated to specific sectors of this market emerge. For example, in January 2021 a crowdfunding platform operating in a reward crowdfunding model (https://zagramw.to/) was launched for the purpose of fundraisings for board games. Nearly 5 million dollars were raised through this platform (Crowdfunding w Polsce na fali, 2021). The latest expert forecasts indicate, however, that in 2023 the value of crowdfunding will shrink by 10%, to the level of 1 billion zlotys or below that value. Such a trend is explained by a further economic downturn, high inflation and the related impoverishment of society (Duszczyk, 2023).

Crowdfunding in Higher Education

Crowdfunding is more and more often employed to obtain additional funds by universities around the world, in particular in the United States. Typically, the researchers and students are the beneficiaries of these projects (Horta, Meoli, & Vismara, 2022). This financing method may increase the resources available for science or partially compensate for the insufficient budgets of financing units (Sauermann, Franzoni & Shafi, 2019). Embracing crowdfunding in the higher education sector was a natural consequence of the new policy that tried to transform universities and make them more market-oriented, that is, acquire certain corporate features. The more so, since in order to cover the increasing costs, universities had to start seeking contributions to their budgets from other sources. Crowdfunding platforms became present at many American universities (Crowdfunding for Universitiesñ, 2015). They range from the most prestigious ones, with the activity concentrated mostly on conducting scientific research and using the additional support mostly in this area, to the less distinguished, teaching-oriented ones, searching for additional funds for improving educational and didactic materials (Horta et al., 2022). European universities do not have such traditions of raising funds. As opposed to their American counterparts, most public European universities (except for those in the United Kingdom) still rely on state support to the highest extent. European cases show that the activities related to raising financial resources are implemented in short-term projects of ad-hoc nature and student participation in them is far from the American model (Nastase, 2018). With respect to incorporating crowdfunding into the university strategy, some of them choose to build their own platform using the available internal resources. Others, by contrast, seek cooperation with external experts that provide ready-made solutions, in the form of both technology and specialist support. It should, however, be emphasised that there is no unique approach in the scope of incorporating crowdfunding into the fundraising strategy that might be applied to all universities (Alma’amun et al., 2021). It is worth underlining that crowdfunding combines fundraising with public engagement and the spirit of entrepreneurship (O’Donnell, 2022), which in the case of universities constitutes additional value.

Crowdfunding platforms operating in higher education are largely based on the donation model, where the funders voluntarily support a selected project and do not expect any rewards or other services in return (Horta et al., 2022). For a university, crowd-based financing may constitute a method not only for obtaining financial resources but also for having the proposed ideas verified by virtual communities. A large number of projects implemented with the use of such platforms, mostly in the USA, may show increasing interest in the will to obtain additional support. The projects are mostly related to funding teaching, scholarships, scientific projects, research or travels of students and researchers. The crowdfunding platforms initiated by American universities are most frequently related to (Lenart-Gansiniec, 2020):

• Funding scientific research carried out by the employees and students;
• Funding sports teams;
• Funding scholarships;
• Funding student travels.

Equally significant is the fact that crowdfunding platforms create a new type of space for marketing communication with all of the university stakeholders (Stasik &Wilczyńska, 2018). They may serve for presenting many diverse activities undertaken by both the scientists and students to a wider public, thus integrating the whole academic community around common goals. It was pointed out that if the possibility to support the projects posted on crowdfunding platforms was not communicated properly to the groups of potential donors, the beneficiaries lost numerous opportunities to obtain support (Jung & Lee, 2019). Apart from being a communication instrument, a crowdfunding platform may become a modern tool for promoting the image of a university and its activity, not only scientific but also social.

The cases of American platforms operating by universities have also shown that relations constituted the most important element determining the will to provide financial support. The sense of belonging and bonding among the university stakeholders are the key factors in successful fundraisings, and sustained care for these relations results in long-lasting success (Jung & Lee, 2019).

Many universities in Europe, and above all in the United States, have their own crowdfunding platforms. Examples from all over the world show that crowdfunding platforms operating within universities and higher education schools are successful in implementing many diverse projects. In Poland, until 2019, when the GOuep.pl platform was launched, none of the public universities have undertaken such activity.

GOuep.pl Crowdfunding Platform

Launching a crowdfunding platform at Poznan University of Economics and Business (PUEB) originated in attempting to address the issue of limited financial capability of the university and other institutions that finance the activities and research conducted by both the PUEB employees and students. Apart from that, the decision to launch the platform was made having contemplated the role and significance of crowdfunding platforms in obtaining support at multiple universities in the United States. Fundacja UEP (the PUEB Foundation) was the initiator of this undertaking. The management board and the employees of the Foundation, having used the desk research method to examine the entities operating in the crowdfunding field both in Poland and worldwide, and having scrutinised the needs of the academic community, in particular the students and employees, recommended launching the GOuep.pl crowdfunding platform, in the donation model, and the 'all-or-nothing’ system to PUEB authorities. The selection of this model was an effect of market analysis, which proved that the donation model of crowdfunding was most frequently used by higher education institutions and academic communities (Tutko, 2018), which constituted the source of inspiration for the initiators of the platform. The analysis of sample crowdfunding platforms run by American universities shows that they provide significant support in obtaining funds for the implementation of numerous scientific and extracurricular projects while being platforms that integrate the academic community.

After a month-long period of planning, and developing a concept plan and technical infrastructure, in May 2019 the Rector of PUEB officially announced that GOuep.pl crowdfunding platform was being launched.

PUEB Foundation as an initiator and executive coordinator of the platform became its administrating body. Terms and Conditions were prepared to determine detailed rules and conditions of platform use and operation, including the rights and obligations of its users and the Foundation as its administrating body. Any natural or legal person, or an organisational unit without legal personality that uses the platform, in particular as a beneficiary or a donor, may be a user of the GOuep.pl platform.

The beneficiaries of GOuep.pl include in particular students of all study modes and degrees, entered onto the list of PUEB students, student research societies (SRSes) registered at PUEB, scientific employees, scientific and didactic employees, and didactic employees employed by PUEB, PUEB units separated according to PUEB organisational structure and operating at PUEB [e.g. Klub Partnera (Partner Club), Stowarzyszenie Absolwentów (Association of Graduates)]. The Foundation, as the administrating body, has a beneficiary status as well, and as such is entitled to charge a part of the donated amounts for maintaining the service and covering its own statutory goals, but also submitting its projects and organising fundraisings for their implementation. Whereas any natural person who has a full legal capacity, a legal person or organisational unit without legal personality may be a donor.

The fundraisings implemented through the GOuep.pl platform may be related to:

• Science (e.g. conducting research, commercialising results, participating in scientific conferences, purchasing equipment, research-related travelling);
• Self-development (e.g. participating in paid conferences or training);
• Improving the quality of common space used by the PUEB academic community (e.g. projects related to spatial development);
• A hobby (e.g. a study visit, organising an exhibition);
• Acting for the benefit of the academic community (e.g. organising a concert, meeting, or seminar).

Integrating the academic community around interesting undertakings proposed by individuals, teams or units related to PUEB is an important goal in the platform’s operation. The possibility of financially supporting individual business goals, charity goals or goals related to medical treatment, social support or social help was excluded.

Users, in particular the beneficiaries, use the platform via their user accounts. Donors are not obliged to create an account; however, if they chose not to, they may use the platform in a limited scope and their donations to the selected projects remain anonymous. The registration of a potential user and creating an account is only possible after the uploaded registration form passes a verification with a positive result. Creating an account is free of charge; however, the users who are the beneficiaries are charged for the organisation of the fundraising and execution of the donation. Under the Terms and Conditions, the administrating body of GOuep.pl charges a fee for organising the fundraising and maintaining the website in the amount of 10% of the amount paid as a donation. The payment service provider charges 1% of the paid amount as a commission for assistance in electronic payments.

The attractiveness of the crowdfunding platform depends in the first place on the level of attractiveness of the projects posted on it. The attractiveness relates to both the benefits for a specific beneficiary and also, in a broader sense, to the entire academic community. The beneficiary uses an online form at GOuep.pl to submit a description of the planned fundraising with the administrating body. To support beneficiaries in preparing the project, the administrating body posted additional information at GOuep.pl in the 'How to submit a project’ tab. It contains detailed tips on how to prepare a project, how to describe and interestingly present it, and how to promote it internally (among the academic community) and externally among potential donors unrelated to the PUEB community. It must be emphasised that funders support rather the people behind the projects than the projects themselves. The credibility and trust in the project initiator are important factors contributing to the success of a given fundraising. Therefore, the description showing one’s passion, engagement and belief in the success of the project may affect its accomplishment. Attracting the interest of potential donors is equally important. The more widespread the interest, the greater the chance for the project to succeed (Biela, 2018). In this phase, the project initiator must obtain the opinion of another person (a student — of their thesis supervisor or a lecturer, SRS — of its advisor, PUEB employee — of another employee of the University, PUEB units — of the person that supervises them, units operating in connection with PUEB and PUEB Foundation — of the University employee adequate for the subject matter of the project). In the next phase, the representatives of the platform’s administrating body perform formal verification of the application and forward it to subjectmatter verification. The community grants a vote of confidence to selected projects and supports them with their payments; therefore an important task to be performed by the platform’s administrating body is to verify the submitted ideas so that the supporters do not get disappointed and lose trust in the platform. The subject-matter assessment is performed by the Management Board of PUEB Foundation in cooperation with experts in the field the project relates to (e.g. scientists and experts in practical economy), invited on each occasion. The verification and assessment of the project from the date of its submission until its acceptance are not longer than 3 weeks. After a preliminary acceptance of the project, its initiator is requested to prepare a detailed presentation of the project, including a clearly specified goal, period and the expected amount of support. Determining the period of fundraising is an important element of planning the crowdfunding project, and it may affect the success of the undertaking. The general opinion is that shorter campaigns have better chances of collecting the demanded amount. The statistics shared show a correlation between the initiative’s lasting period and its chance to be funded. From a statistical point of view, longer projects fail more often. The projects with smaller budgets have a greater chance to reach their goals and secure the success of the entire campaign (Sauermann et al., 2019). Apart from setting the period of fundraising, it is important to plan the dates when the campaign starts and ends, since they are the key moments in each crowdfunding campaign (Malinowski & Giełzak, 2015, p. 95).

After the final acceptance of the project description, amount of and period of fundraising, the administrating body posts the project on the platform in an adequate category, selected from the previously listed. At this moment the fundraising begins. In this phase, the key activities on the part of the project initiator are communication and promotion actions. An attractive way of presenting the project draws the attention of potential donors, allows it to stand out from other projects and may affect the final success of the fundraising (Awdziej, Tkaczyk, & Krzyżanowska, 2018). Therefore, the project’s success will depend on the beneficiary’s skills and knowledge on how to promote their projects, and how to reach a wider group of potential donors and interest them in the undertaking. A donor interested in supporting a given project financially pays a selected amount through the platform. The fundraising is continued for a period specified in the project description. After the lapse of this period, the administrating body, under the provisions of a separate agreement, transfers the monetary funds collected in the fundraising and decreased by the donation for PUEB Foundation and the commission on payments to the beneficiary, in accordance with a donation agreement concluded between the foundation and the fundraising beneficiary. The amount of a due gift tax is covered in full by a beneficiary. Under the terms and conditions of the platform, the amount received by the beneficiary must be spent in full on the implementation of the fundraising goal, which is confirmed by the beneficiary in a written report on spending the funds raised through the platform, sent to PUEB Foundation. A tab 'How to support a project’ dedicated to all potential donors of fundraisings on the platform was posted on the website by the administrating body. Information on how to support a given project, how to transfer a chosen amount and what happens to the transferred money may be found there.

Under the terms and conditions of the platform, the beneficiary obtains the collected amount if the financial goal is achieved. If the amount raised exceeds the goal before the final deadline specified in the project description, the raising is continued. The achieved surplus is transferred to the account of the 'Rozkręcamy koła’ (’Let’s rock the research societies’) Fund set up by PUEB Foundation. The money is allocated only to the goals related to supporting the scientific societies operating by PUEB. Similarly, if the fundraising period specified in the project description lapses and the assumed amount of support is not reached, the collected funds are transferred to the same Fund.

Since the GOuep.pl crowdfunding platform was launched, it has been used to organise 11 fundraisings in total, three of which were individual projects submitted by students, seven were submitted by UEP organisational units and one by a student research society. Six projects, with a total value of PLN 23,110, reached complete funding, which means that 100% of the assumed amount was raised. Thanks to online fundraising, the installation of the first drinking water fountain available to the entire university community was funded, among others. Another fundraising completed successfully was obtaining financial support for the prizes in the 26th contest for the best Master’s thesis defended at PUEB. Another project, submitted by an individual student, that obtained full support, was related to raising funds for participation in the dream public speaking training (Table 1).

PUEB, Poznan University of Economics and Business; SRSes, student research societies.

Ten out of 11 posted fundraisings were based on the reward system, ranging from minor, symbolic rewards (e.g. a thank-you card) to material rewards (e.g. glass water bottle with the PUEB logo). The type of reward was related to the donated amount. The larger the donation amount the higher the reward level. The higher-level rewards, in particular the material rewards, were usually limited, and the website of each project displayed the current information on how many rewards were still available. The proposals of rewards and their funding were always included in the scope of the project beneficiary. Therefore, it was important to consider the cost of rewards in the phase of planning and include it in the final cost estimate.

The types of projects posted to the GOuep platform were related to absolutely different fields than the projects implemented at American universities. No projects related to scientific research, support for sports teams, scholarships and university travels, which constitute the most common crowdfunding initiatives in the USA, appeared. The projects initiated by the PUEB organisational units were the most common and the second most frequent were students’ projects.

Conclusions

The beginnings of the PUEB crowdfunding initiative were based on the enthusiasm of the individuals engaged in the work of the Foundation. In retrospect, it seems useful to elaborate a specific model to support the fundraisings by establishing a fund to be used by project initiators to promote their fundraisings. Such a supporting programme would enable preparing a promotional campaign to promote the new GOuep.pl projects, that do not have adequate impetus, especially in their first, initial phase. However noble, the assumption that any financial resources from the unaccomplished projects or surplus would be transferred to the development of SRSes, was simultaneously limiting the chances of future fundraisings to succeed. Changing the GOuep.pl operating model is also worth considering. Instead of an 'all-or-nothing’ solution, a model where the beneficiary receives the entire collected amount regardless of whether the financial goal was reached or not could be proposed. The guarantee of receiving the collected amount could motivate the project initiator for greater engagement in promoting the fundraising; what is more, it could be a greater incentive for other project initiators to post more fundraisings.

Compared with for-profit organisations, university crowdfunding has better chances to obtain funding from the community (O’Donnell, 2022). It most certainly follows from the social understanding that science needs subsidising and that it is necessary to fight the bureaucracy in applying for funding scientific undertakings. The success of fundraisings on university crowdfunding platforms is related to donors’ trust in the institution, person or team responsible for the project, as well as simple and intuitive forms of support (payment system).

As outlined, encouraging a sense of belonging and bonding among the university stakeholders, not only currently within the university but including the graduates and business environment, is an important component of success in fundraising. Caring for, cultivating and fostering these relations brings effects in the form of long-term success in fundraising (Jung & Lee, 2019). Therefore, the success of the GOuep.pl platform may be related to the type and strength of the relationship the university develops with its stakeholders.

O’Donnell (2022) claims that students and employees with a PhD degree achieved greater success in crowdfunding than older scientists, and women had a higher success rate than men. Based on our observations, we were not able to make unambiguous conclusions on whether similar relations occurred in crowdfunding projects at GOuep.pl. What is more, the profiles of donors who identified themselves with projects have not been analysed, which should be done in future to understand the motivations of individuals making donations. Although crowdfunding is present in Poland, its awareness among students and employees of universities is not complete (Gemra & Hościłowicz, 2021). Consequently, the success of future university fundraisings depends on the growth of awareness among the academic community combined with publicising the success stories of subsequent fundraisings and appreciating the social dimension of supporting the projects. It is worth noting that such a platform is a valuable asset that might be used in the educational process to teach students entrepreneurial and creative approaches towards the implementation of their own goals. It is also a perfect instrument that fosters proactive attitudes, altruistic engagement with helping other students or university units to attain their goals and shaping the feeling of ability to influence the events happening at the university. It was shown that if students are efficiently engaged or participate in the development of their university, a basis for future engagement is formed and the intention to support their university as graduates arises (Jung & Lee, 2019). Therefore, encouraging and motivating students to engage in organised fundraisings may efficiently develop the sensitivity of future graduates towards the University of Economics and Business.

Each of the projects seeking crowdfunding at GOuep.pl had a clear vision and set financial goals. However, their promotional campaigns had low reach, the social media possibilities were not used in full, and the authors of the projects had different skills and competencies when it comes to Internet marketing. The studies (Eisenbeiss, Hartmann, & Hornuf, 2022) show that posts on social media are significant, both in the persuasive and informative forms, especially if they contain a reference to the success of previous campaigns and emphasise a large number of sponsors.

Bushong, Cleveland, and Cox (2018) write that raising funds by crowdfunding is a sprint and not a marathon, thus it would be recommended that in the future, individuals having broader experience in marketing, in particular in practical social media use, are engaged. Improving the success rate of crowdfunding campaigns using spectacular, engaging and emotional marketing actions will translate into a larger number of projects seeking financial resources with the use of crowdfunding. It seems reasonable that any promotional action should have a nature that integrates the academic community. Such value-related and emotional features constitute significant components of efficient crowdfunding on the one hand and develop the university’s image on the other.

O’Donnell’s (2022) studies indicate that strong leadership, and support of the most senior university authorities to advocate the platform, constitute an important aspect of the crowdfunding model. Mental support of the University Rector and Vice-Rectors should include administrative tasks such as developing promotional materials or assistance in opening an account for Internet payments Nevertheless, the mental support of university authorities may not mean taking over the responsibility for a project that rests on a person or team who seeks financial support.

The project posted on a crowdfunding platform may also motivate establishing relations with the business environment. In search of a new source of funding, the initiators may address their projects to selected individuals or institutions that operate in the field it relates to. As a consequence, the group of potential supporters interested in a given project will broaden, and an opportunity to establish a relationship with representatives of a given industry will open up, which may help the implementation of the project and affect further cooperation.

Although crowdfunding seems to be a relatively easy method to raise funds for projects, it still needs strong engagement, external support (the authorities, administration) and efficient campaigns that usually generate costs before first contributions are made. The specific character of university fundraisings must also be emphasised since they usually do not reach beyond a given university’s community, making them rather small, local projects with moderate financial goals. It is still not clear how to measure the success of the fundraising concerning the career and scientific achievements of the project author. Since the academic community appreciates the received subsidies in grant competitions, crowdfunding success should also be adequately measured in the reputation and esteem of a scientist, educationist, administrative employee, or student who stands behind the project.

The significance of our findings is practical, because they may be used by other universities searching for alternative methods to fund scientific and extracurricular undertakings that constitute a specific value for a given university community. Based on the case of the GOuep platform, it was shown that crowdfunding may constitute an alternative source of funding for various university projects. However, crowdfunding, successfully employed at American universities, is still so new and unexplored at universities in Poland, that significant resources, both financial and in the form of expert knowledge, need to be spent in order to take full advantage of it. It is also a lesson for the entire academic community on how to use the potential of engagement in university projects, understood as events that integrate individual groups and affect the development of the potential and attractiveness of a university.

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